Wan Zhang

Mencius said, 'Bo Yi would not allow his eyes to look on a bad sight, nor his ears to listen to a bad sound. He would not serve a prince whom he did not approve, nor command a people whom he did not esteem. In a time of good government he took office, and on the occurrence of confusion he retired. He could not bear to dwell either in a court from which a lawless government emanated, or among lawless people. He considered his being in the same place with a villager, as if he were to sit amid mud and coals with his court robes and court cap. In the time of Zhou he dwelt on the shores of the North sea, waiting the purification of the kingdom. Therefore when men now hear the character of Bo Yi, the corrupt become pure, and the weak acquire determination.

Mencius said, 'Bo Yi would not let his eyes look at anything bad or his ears listen to anything bad. He would not serve a prince he did not approve of or govern people he did not respect. When government was good, he took office. When disorder arose, he withdrew. He could not bear to live at a court that governed lawlessly or among lawless people. Being in the same place as a villager felt to him like sitting among mud and coals in his court robes and cap. In the time of Zhou, he lived on the shores of the North sea, waiting for the kingdom to be purified. So now, when people hear of Bo Yi's character, the corrupt become pure, and the weak gain determination.'

'Yi Yin said, "Whom may I not serve? My serving him makes him my sovereign. What people may I not command? My commanding them makes them my people." In a time of good government he took office, and when confusion prevailed, he also took office. He said, "Heaven's plan in the production of mankind is this: that they who are first informed should instruct those who are later in being informed, and they who first apprehend principles should instruct those who are slower in doing so. I am the one of Heaven's people who has first apprehended; I will take these principles and instruct the people in them." He thought that among all the people of the kingdom, even the common men and women, if there were any who did not share in the enjoyment of such benefits as Yao and Shun conferred, it was as if he himself pushed them into a ditch - for he took upon himself the heavy charge of the kingdom.

'Yi Yin said, "Whom could I not serve? By serving someone, I make him my sovereign. What people could I not lead? By leading them, I make them my people." He took office when government was good, and he also took office when disorder prevailed. He said, "Heaven's plan in creating humanity is this: those who learn first should teach those who learn later. Those who understand principles first should teach those who are slower to understand. I am one of Heaven's people who understood first. I will teach these principles to the people." He considered all the people in the kingdom, even ordinary men and women. If any did not enjoy the benefits Yao and Shun had provided, he felt personally responsible. It was as if he himself had pushed them into a ditch, for he had taken responsibility for the kingdom.

'Hui of Liu Xia was not ashamed to serve an impure prince, nor did he think it low to be an inferior officer. When advanced to employment, he did not conceal his virtue, but made it a point to carry out his principles. When dismissed and left without office, he did not murmur. When straitened by poverty, he did not grieve. When thrown into the company of village people, he was quite at ease and could not bear to leave them. He had a saying, "You are you, and I am I. Although you stand by my side with breast and arms bare, or with your body naked, how can you defile me?" Therefore when men now hear the character of Hui of Liu Xia, the mean become generous, and the niggardly become liberal.

'Hui of Liu Xia was not ashamed to serve a corrupt prince, nor did he consider a junior position beneath him. When given a post, he did not hide his virtue but made a point of putting his principles into practice. When dismissed and left without office, he did not complain. When struggling with poverty, he did not grieve. When among village people, he felt completely at ease and could not bear to leave them. He used to say, "You are you, and I am I. Even if you stand beside me with your chest and arms bare, or completely naked, how can you corrupt me?" So when people today hear about the character of Hui of Liu Xia, the petty become generous, and the stingy become giving.

'When Confucius was leaving Qi, he strained off with his hand the water in which his rice was being rinsed, took the rice, and went away. When he left Lu, he said, "I will set out by-and-by" - it was right he should leave the country of his parents in this way. When it was proper to go away quickly, he did so; when it was proper to delay, he did so; when it was proper to keep in retirement, he did so; when it was proper to go into office, he did so - this was Confucius.'

'When Confucius was leaving Qi, he used his hand to drain the water from the rice being rinsed. He took the rice and left. When he left Lu, he said, "I will leave in a little while." Leaving slowly was right because Lu was his parents' homeland. When leaving quickly was proper, he left quickly. When waiting was proper, he waited. When staying out of public life was proper, he stayed out. When taking public office was proper, he took office. Such was Confucius.'

Mencius said, 'Bo Yi among the sages was the pure one; Yi Yin was the one most inclined to take office; Hui of Liu Xia was the accommodating one; and Confucius was the timeous one. In Confucius we have what is called a complete concert. A complete concert is when the large bell proclaims the commencement of the music, and the ringing stone proclaims its close. The metal sound commences the blended harmony of all the instruments, and the winding up with the stone terminates that blended harmony. The commencing that harmony is the work of wisdom. The terminating it is the work of sageness. As a comparison for wisdom, we may liken it to skill, and as a comparison for sageness, we may liken it to strength - as in the case of shooting at a mark a hundred paces distant. That you reach it is owing to your strength, but that you hit the mark is not owing to your strength.'

Mencius said, 'Among the sages, Bo Yi was the pure one. Yi Yin was the most eager to take office. Hui of Liu Xia was the accommodating one. Confucius was the one who acted at the right time. In Confucius we find what is called a complete concert. A complete concert begins with the sound of a large bell and ends with a ringing stone. The bell’s metallic sound begins the blended harmony of all the instruments. The final sound of the stone brings that blended harmony to a close. Beginning that harmony is the work of wisdom. Bringing that harmony to a close is the work of a sage. We may compare wisdom to skill, and we may compare a sage’s qualities to strength. Consider shooting at a target a hundred paces away. Your strength allows your arrow to reach the target, but hitting the mark does not depend on your strength.'

Bei Gong Qi asked Mencius, saying, 'What was the arrangement of dignities and emoluments determined by the House of Zhou?'

Bei Gong Qi asked Mencius, 'What system of ranks and pay did the House of Zhou establish?'

Mencius replied, 'The particulars of that arrangement cannot be learned, for the princes, disliking them as injurious to themselves, have all made away with the records of them. Still I have learned the general outline of them. The Son of Heaven constituted one dignity; the Gong one; the Hou one; the Bai one; and the Zi and the Nan each one of equal rank - altogether making five degrees of rank. The Ruler again constituted one dignity; the Chief Minister one; the Great Officers one; the Scholars of the First Class one; those of the Middle Class one; and those of the Lowest Class one - altogether making six degrees of dignity.

Mencius replied, 'The details of that arrangement can no longer be learned. The princes disliked the arrangement because they considered it harmful to themselves, so they all destroyed the records. Still, I have learned its general outline. The Son of Heaven held one rank, the Gong another, the Hou another, and the Bai another. The Zi and the Nan held equal rank, making five ranks in all. Next, the Ruler held one rank, the Chief Minister another, and the Great Officers another. The Scholars of the First Class, Middle Class, and Lowest Class each held a separate rank. These made six ranks in all.'

'To the Son of Heaven there was allotted a territory of a thousand li square. A Gong and a Hou had each a hundred li square. A Bai had seventy li, and a Zi and a Nan had each fifty li. The assignments altogether were of four amounts. Where the territory did not amount to fifty li, the chief could not have access himself to the Son of Heaven. His land was attached to some Hou-ship, and was called a Fu Yong. The Chief ministers of the Son of Heaven received an amount of territory equal to that of a Hou; a Great officer received as much as a Bai; and a scholar of the first class as much as a Zi or a Nan.

'The Son of Heaven was allotted a territory measuring a thousand li on each side. A Gong and a Hou each received a territory measuring a hundred li on each side. A Bai received seventy li on each side, and a Zi and a Nan each received fifty li on each side. Altogether, there were four sizes of territory. If a territory measured less than fifty li on each side, its chief could not personally approach the Son of Heaven. The chief’s land was attached to a Hou’s territory and was called a Fu Yong. The Son of Heaven’s chief ministers received territories equal in size to a Hou’s. A Great officer received as much land as a Bai. A scholar of the first class received as much as a Zi or a Nan.

'In a great State, where the territory was a hundred li square, the ruler had ten times as much income as his Chief ministers; a Chief minister four times as much as a Great officer; a Great officer twice as much as a scholar of the first class; a scholar of the first class twice as much as one of the middle; a scholar of the middle class twice as much as one of the lowest; the scholars of the lowest class, and such of the common people as were employed about the government offices, had for their emolument as much as was equal to what they would have made by tilling the fields. In a State of the next order, where the territory was seventy li square, the ruler had ten times as much revenue as his Chief minister; a Chief minister three times as much as a Great officer; a Great officer twice as much as a scholar of the first class; a scholar of the first class twice as much as one of the middle; a scholar of the middle class twice as much as one of the lowest; the scholars of the lowest class, and such of the common people as were employed about the government offices, had for their emolument as much as was equal to what they would have made by tilling the fields. In a small State, where the territory was fifty li square, the ruler had ten times as much revenue as his Chief minister; a Chief minister had twice as much as a Great officer; a Great officer twice as much as a scholar of the highest class; a scholar of the highest class twice as much as one of the middle; a scholar of the middle class twice as much as one of the lowest; scholars of the lowest class, and such of the common people as were employed about the government offices, had the same emolument - as much, namely, as was equal to what they would have made by tilling the fields. As to those who tilled the fields, each husbandman received a hundred mu. When those mu were manured, the best husbandmen of the highest class supported nine individuals, and those ranking next to them supported eight. The best husbandmen of the second class supported seven individuals, and those ranking next to them supported six; while husbandmen of the lowest class only supported five. The salaries of the common people who were employed about the government offices were regulated according to these differences.'

'In a large state, with territory measuring a hundred li on each side, the ruler earned ten times as much as his chief ministers. A chief minister earned four times as much as a high official. A high official earned twice as much as a first-class scholar. A first-class scholar earned twice as much as a middle-class scholar. A middle-class scholar earned twice as much as a lowest-class scholar. Lowest-class scholars and common people employed in government offices received as much as they would have earned by farming. In a state of the next rank, the territory measured seventy li on each side. The ruler received ten times as much income as his chief minister. A chief minister earned three times as much as a high official. A high official earned twice as much as a first-class scholar. A first-class scholar earned twice as much as a middle-class scholar. A middle-class scholar earned twice as much as a lowest-class scholar. Lowest-class scholars and common people employed in government offices received as much as they would have earned by farming. In a small state, the territory measured fifty li on each side. The ruler received ten times as much income as his chief minister. A chief minister earned twice as much as a high official. A high official earned twice as much as a highest-class scholar. A highest-class scholar earned twice as much as a middle-class scholar. A middle-class scholar earned twice as much as a lowest-class scholar. Lowest-class scholars and common people employed in government offices received the same pay. Their pay equaled what they would have earned by farming. Each farmer received a hundred mu of land. When this land was fertilized, the best farmers of the highest class supported nine people. Those ranking just below them supported eight. The best farmers of the second class supported seven people. Those ranking just below them supported six. Farmers of the lowest class supported only five. The salaries of common people employed in government offices were set according to these differences.'

Wan Chang asked Mencius, saying, 'I venture to ask the principles of friendship.'

Wan Chang asked Mencius, 'May I ask about the principles of friendship?'

Mencius replied, 'Friendship should be maintained without any presumption on the ground of one's superior age, or station, or the circumstances of his relatives. Friendship with a man is friendship with his virtue, and does not admit of assumptions of superiority. There was Meng Xian, chief of a family of a hundred chariots. He had five friends, namely, Yue Zheng Qiu, Mu Zhong, and three others whose names I have forgotten. With those five men Xian maintained a friendship, because they thought nothing about his family. If they had thought about his family, he would not have maintained his friendship with them. Not only has the chief of a family of a hundred chariots acted thus. The same thing was exemplified by the sovereign of a small State. The duke Hui of Bi said, "I treat Zi Si as my Teacher, and Yan Ban as my Friend. As to Wang Shun and Chang Xi, they serve me." Not only has the sovereign of a small State acted thus. The same thing has been exemplified by the sovereign of a large State. There was the duke Ping of Jin with Hai Tang - when Tang told him to come into his house, he came; when he told him to be seated, he sat; when he told him to eat, he ate. There might only be coarse rice and soup of vegetables, but he always ate his fill, not daring to do otherwise. Here, however, he stopped, and went no farther. He did not call him to share any of Heaven's places, or to govern any of Heaven's offices, or to partake of any of Heaven's emoluments. His conduct was but a scholar's honouring virtue and talents, not the honouring them proper to a king or a duke. Shun went up to court and saw the sovereign, who lodged him as his son-in-law in the second palace. The sovereign also enjoyed there Shun's hospitality. Alternately he was host and guest. Here was the sovereign maintaining friendship with a private man. Respect shown by inferiors to superiors is called giving to the noble the observance due to rank. Respect shown by superiors to inferiors is called giving honour to talents and virtue. The rightness in each case is the same.'

Mencius replied, 'Friendship should not rest on claims of superiority based on age, rank, or family connections. To befriend someone is to befriend his virtue. Friendship leaves no room for claims of superiority. Meng Xian was the head of a family with a hundred chariots. He had five friends: Yue Zheng Qiu, Mu Zhong, and three others whose names I have forgotten. Xian remained friends with these five men because they paid no attention to his family's status. If they had considered his family's status, he would not have remained friends with them. 'This approach was not limited to the head of a family with a hundred chariots. The ruler of a small State also acted this way. The duke Hui of Bi said, "I treat Zi Si as my teacher, and Yan Ban as my friend. As for Wang Shun and Chang Xi, they serve me." 'This approach was not limited to the ruler of a small State. The ruler of a large State also acted this way. Consider the duke Ping of Jin and Hai Tang. When Tang told the duke to enter his house, the duke entered. When Tang told him to sit, he sat. When Tang told him to eat, he ate. There might be only coarse rice and vegetable soup, but the duke always ate his fill, not daring to do otherwise. Yet the duke went no further than this. He did not invite Tang to share any position granted by Heaven. Nor did he invite Tang to hold any office granted by Heaven or receive any income granted by Heaven. The duke honored virtue and talent as a scholar would, not as a king or duke should. 'Shun went to court and met the sovereign, who housed him as his son-in-law in the second palace. The sovereign also enjoyed Shun's hospitality there. The sovereign took turns being host and guest. Here was a sovereign maintaining a friendship with a private man. When people of lower rank respect those above them, they give nobles the respect due to their rank. When people of higher rank respect those below them, they honor talent and virtue. Both forms of respect are equally right.'

Wan Zhang asked Mencius, saying, 'I venture to ask what feeling of the mind is expressed in the presents of friendship?'

Wan Zhang asked Mencius, 'May I ask what feeling is expressed by giving gifts of friendship?'

Mencius replied, 'The feeling of respect.'

Mencius replied, 'A feeling of respect.'

'How is it,' pursued Zhang, 'that the declining a present is accounted disrespectful?'

'Why,' Zhang continued, 'is refusing a gift considered disrespectful?'

The answer was, 'When one of honourable rank presents a gift, to say in the mind, "Was the way in which he got this righteous or not? I must know this before I can receive it" - this is deemed disrespectful, and therefore presents are not declined.'

The answer was, 'When someone of high rank offers a gift, it is considered disrespectful to think, "Did he obtain this honestly? I must know before I can accept the gift." So such gifts are not refused.'

Wan Zhang asked again, 'When one does not take on him in so many express words to refuse the gift, but having declined it in his heart, saying, "It was taken by him unrighteously from the people," and then assigns some other reason for not receiving it - is not this a proper course?'

Wan Zhang asked again, 'Suppose someone does not explicitly state his reason for refusing a gift. But in his heart he rejects the gift, thinking, "The giver took it unjustly from the people." Then he gives some other reason for refusing the gift. Is this not a proper way to act?'

Mencius said, 'When the donor offers it on a ground of reason, and his manner of doing so is according to propriety; in such a case Confucius would have received it.'

Mencius said, 'If the donor had a sound reason for offering it and offered it properly, Confucius would have accepted it.'

Wan Zhang said, 'Here now is one who stops and robs people outside the gates of the city. He offers his gift on a ground of reason, and does so in a manner according to propriety - would the reception of it so acquired by robbery be proper?'

Wan Zhang said, 'Suppose someone stops and robs people outside the city gates. He offers a gift with a reasonable justification and in a proper manner. Would it be right to accept a gift acquired through robbery?'

Mencius replied, 'It would not be proper. In "The Announcement to Kang" it is said, "When men kill others, and roll over their bodies to take their property, being reckless and fearless of death, among all the people there are none but detest them" - thus, such characters are to be put to death, without waiting to give them warning. Yin received this rule from Xia and Zhou received it from Yin. It cannot be questioned, and to the present day is clearly acknowledged. How can the grift of a robber be received?'

Mencius replied, 'That would not be right. "The Announcement to Kang" says, "When men kill others and turn over their bodies to take their property, they act recklessly, without fearing death. Everyone among the people detests such men." So such men must be put to death without first being warned. Yin inherited this rule from Xia, and Zhou inherited it from Yin. The rule cannot be questioned and is still clearly recognized today. How can a robber's gift be accepted?'

Zhang said, 'The princes of the present day take from their people just as a robber despoils his victim. Yet if they put a good face of propriety on their gifts, then the superior man receives them. I venture to ask how you explain this.'

Zhang said, 'Today's princes take from their people just as a robber plunders a victim. Yet if the princes make their gifts seem proper, the morally upright man accepts them. May I ask how you explain this?'

Mencius answered, 'Do you think that, if there should arise a truly royal sovereign, he would collect the princes of the present day, and put them all to death? Or would he admonish them, and then, on their not changing their ways, put them to death? Indeed, to call every one who takes what does not properly belong to him a robber, is pushing a point of resemblance to the utmost, and insisting on the most refined idea of righteousness. When Confucius was in office in Lu, the people struggled together for the game taken in hunting, and he also did the same. If that struggling for the captured game was proper, how much more may the gifts of the princes be received!'

Mencius answered, 'Suppose a truly kingly ruler arose. Do you think he would gather the princes of today and put them all to death? Or would he warn them first, then put them to death if they did not change their ways? Indeed, calling everyone who takes what does not rightfully belong to him a robber stretches a comparison to its limit. It also insists on the strictest understanding of righteousness. When Confucius held office in Lu, people competed for the animals caught in hunting, and he did the same. If competing for those animals was proper, how much more acceptable must it be to receive gifts from princes!'

Zhang urged, 'Then are we to suppose that when Confucius held office, it was not with the view to carry his doctrines into practice?'

Zhang pressed, 'Then should we assume Confucius did not hold office to put his teachings into practice?'

'It was with that view,' Mencius replied,

'It was for that purpose,' Mencius replied,

And Zhang rejoined, 'If the practice of his doctrines was his business, what had he to do with that struggling for the captured game?'

And Zhang replied, 'If his job was to put his teachings into practice, why was he competing for the captured game?'

Mencius said, 'Confucius first rectified his vessels of sacrifice according to the registers, and did not fill them so rectified with food gathered from every quarter.'

Mencius said, 'Confucius first put his sacrificial vessels in order according to the records. But he did not fill those properly arranged vessels with food gathered from every direction.'

'But why did he not go away?'

'But why didn’t he leave?'

'He wished to make a trial of carrying his doctrines into practice. When that trial was sufficient to show that they could be practised and they were still not practised, then he went away, and thus it was that he never completed in any State a residence of three years. Confucius took office when he saw that the practice of his doctrines was likely; he took office when his reception was proper; he took office when he was supported by the State. In the case of his relation to Qi Huan, he took office, seeing that the practice of his doctrines was likely. With the duke Ling of Wei he took office, because his reception was proper. With the duke Xiao of Wei he took office, because he was maintained by the State.'

'He wanted to try putting his teachings into practice. Once the trial showed that his teachings could be put into practice, he left if they still were not followed. That is why he never stayed in any State for a full three years. Confucius accepted office when he saw that his teachings were likely to be put into practice. He also accepted office when he was properly received, or when the State supported him. With Qi Huan, he accepted office because his teachings seemed likely to be put into practice. With duke Ling of Wei, he accepted office because he was properly received. With duke Xiao of Wei, he accepted office because the State supported him.'

Mencius said, 'Office is not sought on account of poverty, yet there are times when one seeks office on that account. Marriage is not entered into for the sake of being attended to by the wife, yet there are times when one marries on that account. He who takes office on account of his poverty must decline an honourable situation and occupy a low one; he must decline riches and prefer to be poor. What office will be in harmony with this declining an honourable situation and occupying a low one, this declining riches and preferring to be poor? Such an one as that of guarding the gates, or beating the watchman's stick. Confucius was once keeper of stores, and he then said, "My calculations must be all right. That is all I have to care about." He was once in charge of the public fields, and he then said, "The oxen and sheep must be fat and strong, and superior. That is all I have to care about." When one is in a low situation, to speak of high matters is a crime. When a scholar stands in a prince's court, and his principles are not carried into practice, it is a shame to him.'

Mencius said, 'One does not seek office because of poverty, yet sometimes one seeks office for that reason. One does not marry to be cared for by a wife, yet sometimes one marries for that reason. A man who takes office because he is poor must turn down a high position and accept a low one. He must turn down wealth and choose to remain poor. What office would fit this choice of a low position over a high one, and poverty over wealth? A job such as guarding the gates or striking the watchman's stick. Confucius was once a storekeeper, and he said, "My accounts must all be correct. Keeping them correct is all I need to care about." He was once in charge of the public fields, and he said, "The oxen and sheep must be fat, strong, and of the best quality. Their condition is all I need to care about." When a man holds a low position, speaking about high affairs of state is a crime. When a scholar serves at a prince's court but his principles are not put into practice, he should be ashamed.'

Wan Zhang said, 'What is the reason that a scholar does not accept a stated support from a prince?'

Wan Zhang said, 'Why does a scholar not accept a regular allowance from a prince?'

Mencius replied, 'He does not presume to do so. When a prince loses his State, and then accepts a stated support from another prince, this is in accordance with propriety. But for a scholar to accept such support from any of the princes is not in accordance with propriety.'

Mencius replied, 'He does not presume to do that. When a prince loses his state, he may then accept regular support from another prince without violating proper conduct. But for a scholar to accept such support from any prince goes against proper conduct.'

Wan Zhang said, 'If the prince send him a present of grain, for instance, does he accept it?'

Wan Zhang said, 'If the prince sends him a gift of grain, for example, does he accept it?'

'He accepts it,' answered Mencius.

'He accepts it,' Mencius replied.

'On what principle of righteousness does he accept it?'

'On what moral grounds does he accept it?'

'Why, the prince ought to assist the people in their necessities.'

'Why, the prince should help the people when they are in need.'

Zhang pursued, 'Why is it that the scholar will thus accept the prince's help, but will not accept his pay?'

Zhang continued, 'Why will the scholar accept the prince's help in this way, but not accept the prince's pay?'

The answer was, 'He does not presume to do so.'

The answer was, 'He does not dare to do so.'

'I venture to ask why he does not presume to do so.'

'May I ask why he does not dare to do so?'

'Even the keepers of the gates, with their watchmen's sticks, have their regular offices for which they can take their support from the prince. He who without a regular office should receive the pay of the prince must be deemed disrespectful.'

'Even gatekeepers with their watchmen's sticks have regular duties that entitle them to support from the prince. Anyone who receives the prince's pay without holding a regular office must be considered disrespectful.'

Zhang asked, 'If the prince sends a scholar a present, he accepts it; I do not know whether this present may be constantly repeated.'

Zhang asked, 'If the prince sends a scholar a gift, the scholar accepts it. I do not know whether such gifts may be given repeatedly.'

Mencius answered, 'There was the conduct of the duke Mu to Zi Si. He made frequent inquiries after Zi Si's health, and sent him frequent presents of cooked meat. Zi Si was displeased; and at length, having motioned to the messenger to go outside the great door, he bowed his head to the ground with his face to the north, did obeisance twice, and declined the gift, saying, "From this time forth I shall know that the prince supports me as a dog or a horse." And so from that time a servant was no more sent with the presents. When a prince professes to be pleased with a man of talents and virtue, and can neither promote him to office, nor support him in the proper way, can he be said to be pleased with him?'

Mencius answered, 'Consider how duke Mu treated Zi Si. He often asked about Zi Si's health and sent him gifts of cooked meat. Zi Si was displeased. At last, he motioned for the messenger to go outside the main gate. Then, facing north, he bowed twice with his head touching the ground and refused the gift. He said, "From now on, I shall know that the prince feeds me like a dog or a horse." So after that, no servant was sent with gifts again. Suppose a prince claims to appreciate a man of talent and virtue. Yet he can neither appoint the man to office nor support him properly. Can the prince really be said to appreciate him?'

Zhang said, 'I venture to ask how the sovereign of a State, when he wishes to support a superior man, must proceed, that he may be said to do so in the proper way?'

Zhang said, 'May I ask how a state's ruler should properly support a man of virtue when he wishes to do so?'

Mencius answered, 'At first, the present must be offered with the prince's commission, and the scholar, making obeisance twice with his head bowed to the ground, will receive it. But after this the storekeeper will continue to send grain, and the master of the kitchen to send meat, presenting it as if without the prince's express commission. Zi Si considered that the meat from the prince's caldron, giving him the annoyance of constantly doing obeisance, was not the way to support a superior man. There was Yao's conduct to Shun: He caused his nine sons to serve him, and gave him his two daughters in marriage; he caused the various officers, oxen and sheep, storehouses and granaries, all to be prepared to support Shun amid the channelled fields, and then he raised him to the most exalted situation. From this we have the expression, "The honouring of virtue and talents proper to a king or a duke."'

Mencius answered, 'At first, the gift must be offered with the prince's express authorization. The scholar will bow twice with his head to the ground and receive the gift. But afterward, the storekeeper will continue sending grain, and the head cook will continue sending meat. These gifts will be presented as if without the prince's express authorization. Zi Si found it troublesome to keep bowing in thanks for meat from the prince's cooking pot. He considered this no way to support a man of virtue. Consider how Yao treated Shun. He had his nine sons serve Shun and gave Shun his two daughters in marriage. He had all the various officials, oxen and sheep, storehouses and granaries made ready to support Shun among the irrigated fields. Then he raised Shun to the highest position. From this comes the expression, "Honoring virtue and talent as a king or duke should."'

Wan Zhang said, 'I venture to ask what principle of righteousness is involved in a scholar's not going to see the princes?'

Wan Zhang said, 'May I ask what moral principle explains why a scholar does not visit princes?'

Mencius replied, 'A scholar residing in the city is called "a minister of the market-place and well," and one residing in the country is called "a minister of the grass and plants." In both cases he is a common man, and it is the rule of propriety that common men, who have not presented the introductory present and become ministers, should not presume to have interviews with the prince.'

Mencius replied, 'A scholar living in the city is called "a minister of the marketplace and well." A scholar living in the countryside is called "a minister of the grass and plants." In either case, the scholar is a commoner. The rules of proper conduct apply to commoners who have not offered an introductory gift and become ministers. Such commoners should not presume to meet with the prince.'

Wan Zhang said, 'If a common man is called to perform any service, he goes and performs it; how is it that a scholar, when the prince, wishing to see him, calls him to his presence, refuses to go?'

Wan Zhang said, 'If an ordinary man is called to perform a service, he goes and does the work. Why, then, does a scholar refuse to go when the prince summons him because he wants to see him?'

Mencius replied, 'It is right to go and perform the service; it would not be right to go and see the prince. And,' added Mencius, 'on what account is it that the prince wishes to see the scholar?'

Mencius replied, 'It is right to go and perform the service. But it would not be right to go and see the prince.' Mencius added, 'And why does the prince want to see the scholar?'

'Because of his extensive information, or because of his talents and virtue,' was the reply.

'Because of his broad knowledge, or because of his talents and virtue,' came the reply.

'If because of his extensive information,' said Mencius, 'such a person is a teacher, and the sovereign would not call him - how much less may any of the princes do so? If because of his talents and virtue, then I have not heard of any one wishing to see a person with those qualities, and calling him to his presence. During the frequent interviews of the duke Mu with Zi Si, he one day said to him, "Anciently, princes of a thousand chariots have yet been on terms of friendship with scholars - what do you think of such an intercourse?" Zi Si was displeased, and said, "The ancients have said, 'The scholar should be served:' how should they have merely said that he should be made a friend of?" When Zi Si was thus displeased, did he not say within himself, "With regard to our stations, you are sovereign, and I am subject. How can I presume to be on terms of friendship with my sovereign! With regard to our virtue, you ought to make me your master. How can you be on terms of friendship with me?" Thus, when a ruler of a thousand chariots sought to be on terms of friendship with a scholar, he could not obtain his wish - how much less could he call him to his presence! The duke Ching of Qi, once, when he was hunting, called his forester to him by a flag. The forester would not come, and the duke was going to kill him. With reference to this incident, Confucius said, "The determined officer never forgets that his end may be in a ditch or a stream; the brave officer never forgets that he may lose his head." What was it in the forester that Confucius thus approved? He approved his not going to the duke, when summoned by the article which was not appropriate to him.'

'If a person is a teacher because of his extensive knowledge,' said Mencius, 'even the sovereign would not summon him. How much less may any of the princes do so? If he is a teacher because of his talents and virtue, I have never heard of anyone summoning such a person when wishing to see him. During his frequent meetings with Zi Si, the duke Mu once said to him, "In ancient times, princes with a thousand chariots were still friends with scholars. What do you think of such a relationship?" Zi Si was displeased and said, "The ancients said, 'The scholar should be served.' How could they have said merely that he should be treated as a friend?" When Zi Si was so displeased, did he not say to himself, "In rank, you are the sovereign, and I am your subject. How can I presume to be friends with my sovereign? In virtue, you ought to make me your teacher. How can you be friends with me?" Thus, even a ruler with a thousand chariots could not gain a scholar's friendship when he sought it. How much less could he summon the scholar to his presence! Once, while hunting, the duke Ching of Qi summoned his forester with a flag. The forester would not come, and the duke was going to kill him. Referring to this incident, Confucius said, "The resolute officer never forgets that he may end up dead in a ditch or stream. The brave officer never forgets that he may lose his head." What did Confucius approve of in the forester's conduct? He approved of the forester's refusal to come when summoned with a signal inappropriate to his position.'

Zhang said, 'May I ask with what a forester should be summoned?'

Zhang said, 'May I ask what should be used to summon a forester?'

Mencius replied, 'With a skin cap. A common man should be summoned with a plain banner; a scholar who has taken office, with one having dragons embroidered on it; and a Great officer, with one having feathers suspended from the top of the staff. When the forester was summoned with the article appropriate to the summoning of a Great officer, he would have died rather than presume to go. If a common man were summoned with the article appropriate to the summoning of a scholar, how could he presume to go? How much more may we expect this refusal to go, when a man of talents and virtue is summoned in a way which is inappropriate to his character! When a prince wishes to see a man of talents and virtue, and does not take the proper course to get his wish, it is as if he wished him to enter his palace, and shut the door against him. Now, righteousness is the way, and propriety is the door, but it is only the superior man who can follow this way, and go out and in by this door. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "The way to Zhou is level like a whetstone, And straight as an arrow. The officers tread it, And the lower people see it."'

Mencius replied, 'With a skin cap. A common man should be summoned with a plain banner. A scholar who holds office should be summoned with a banner embroidered with dragons. A Great officer should be summoned with a banner whose staff has feathers hanging from the top. When the forester was summoned with the banner meant for a Great officer, he would have died rather than go. If a common man were summoned with the banner meant for a scholar, how could he dare to go? How much more should we expect a talented and virtuous man to refuse a summons that does not suit his standing! When a prince wishes to see a talented and virtuous man, he must approach him in the proper way. If the prince does not, it is as if he wanted the man to enter his palace but shut the door against him. Now, righteousness is the path, and proper conduct is the door. But only a person of superior character can follow this path and pass in and out through this door. The Book of Poetry says, "The way to Zhou is as level as a whetstone, And as straight as an arrow. The officers walk along it, And the common people see it."'

Wan Zhang said, 'When Confucius received the prince's message calling him, he went without waiting for his carriage. Doing so, did Confucius do wrong?'

Wan Zhang said, 'When Confucius received the prince's message summoning him, he went without waiting for his carriage. Was Confucius wrong to do so?'

Mencius replied, 'Confucius was in office, and had to observe its appropriate duties. And moreover, he was summoned on the business of his office.'

Mencius replied, 'Confucius held public office and had to carry out the duties of his position. Besides, he was summoned on official business.'

Mencius said to Wan Zhang, 'The scholar whose virtue is most distinguished in a village shall make friends of all the virtuous scholars in the village. The scholar whose virtue is most distinguished throughout a State shall make friends of all the virtuous scholars of that State. The scholar whose virtue is most distinguished throughout the kingdom shall make friends of all the virtuous scholars of the kingdom. When a scholar feels that his friendship with all the virtuous scholars of the kingdom is not sufficient to satisfy him, he proceeds to ascend to consider the men of antiquity. He repeats their poems, and reads their books, and as he does not know what they were as men, to ascertain this, he considers their history. This is to ascend and make friends of the men of antiquity.'

Mencius said to Wan Zhang, 'The scholar with the greatest virtue in a village should befriend all the virtuous scholars in the village. The scholar with the greatest virtue in a State should befriend all the virtuous scholars in that State. The scholar with the greatest virtue in the kingdom should befriend all the virtuous scholars in the kingdom. When friendship with all the kingdom’s virtuous scholars does not satisfy him, he reaches further back to consider ancient men. He recites their poems and reads their books. Since he does not know what these men were like, he studies their history to find out. This is how a scholar reaches back and makes friends with the men of ancient times.'

The king Xuan of Qi asked about the office of high ministers. Mencius said, 'Which high ministers is your Majesty asking about?'

King Xuan of Qi asked about the role of high ministers. Mencius said, 'Which high ministers are you asking about, your Majesty?'

'Are there differences among them?' inquired the king.

'Are there differences among them?' asked the king.

'There are' was the reply. 'There are the high ministers who are noble and relatives of the prince, and there are those who are of a different surname.'

'Yes,' came the reply. 'Some high ministers are nobles and relatives of the prince. Others have a different surname.'

The king said, 'I beg to ask about the high ministers who are noble and relatives of the prince.'

The king said, 'May I ask about the high ministers who are nobles and relatives of the prince?'

Mencius answered, 'If the prince have great faults, they ought to remonstrate with him, and if he do not listen to them after they have done so again and again, they ought to dethrone him.'

Mencius answered, 'If the prince has serious faults, they should speak out against those faults. If he refuses to listen after repeated appeals, they should remove him from the throne.'

The king on this looked moved, and changed countenance. Mencius said, 'Let not your Majesty be offended. You asked me, and I dare not answer but according to truth.'

At this, the king looked troubled, and his expression changed. Mencius said, 'Please do not be offended, Your Majesty. You asked me, and I dare not give any answer but the truth.'

The king's countenance became composed, and he then begged to ask about high ministers who were of a different surname from the prince. Mencius said, 'When the prince has faults, they ought to remonstrate with him; and if he do not listen to them after they have done this again and again, they ought to leave the State.'

The king's expression became calm. He then asked about high ministers who did not share the prince's surname. Mencius said, 'When the prince has faults, these ministers should speak to him about them. If the prince refuses to listen after repeated warnings, the ministers should leave the state.'