Gaozi

The philosopher Gao said, 'Man's nature is like the qi-willow , and righteousness is like a cup or a bowl. The fashioning benevolence and righteousness out of man's nature is like the making cups and bowls from the qi-willow.'

The philosopher Gao said, 'Human nature is like the qi-willow, and righteousness is like a cup or bowl. Shaping human nature into benevolence and righteousness is like making cups and bowls from the qi-willow.'

Mencius replied, 'Can you, leaving untouched the nature of the willow, make with it cups and bowls? You must do violence and injury to the willow, before you can make cups and bowls with it. If you must do violence and injury to the willow in order to make cups and bowls with it, on your principles you must in the same way do violence and injury to humanity in order to fashion from it benevolence and righteousness! Your words, alas! would certainly lead all men on to reckon benevolence and righteousness to be calamities.'

Mencius replied, 'Can you make cups and bowls from willow without changing its nature? You must damage and harm the willow before you can make cups and bowls from it. If you must harm the willow to make cups and bowls, then your principles demand the same treatment of humanity. You must harm human nature to shape it into benevolence and righteousness! Sadly, your words would certainly lead all people to see benevolence and righteousness as disasters.'

The philosopher Gao said, 'Man's nature is like water whirling round in a corner. Open a passage for it to the east, and it will flow to the east; open a passage for it to the west, and it will flow to the west. Man's nature is indifferent to good and evil, just as the water is indifferent to the east and west.'

The philosopher Gao said, 'Human nature is like water swirling in a corner. Open a channel to the east, and the water will flow east. Open a channel to the west, and the water will flow west. Human nature has no preference for good or evil, just as water has no preference for east or west.'

Mencius replied, 'Water indeed will flow indifferently to the east or west, but will it flow indifferently up or down? The tendency of man's nature to good is like the tendency of water to flow downwards. There are none but have this tendency to good, just as all water flows downwards. Now by striking water and causing it to leap up, you may make it go over your forehead, and, by damming and leading it you may force it up a hill - but are such movements according to the nature of water? It is the force applied which causes them. When men are made to do what is not good, their nature is dealt with in this way.'

Mencius replied, 'Water will indeed flow either east or west, but will it flow either up or down just as readily? Human nature tends toward goodness just as water tends to flow downward. Everyone has this tendency toward goodness, just as all water flows downward. Now, by striking water and making it leap up, you may make the water rise above your forehead. By damming and channeling water, you may force it up a hill. But are such movements natural to water? The force applied to the water causes these movements. When people are made to do what is not good, their nature is treated in the same way.'

The philosopher Gao said, 'Life is what we call nature!'

The philosopher Gao said, 'Life is what we call nature!'

Mencius asked him, 'Do you say that by nature you mean life, just as you say that white is white?' 'Yes, I do,' was the reply.

Mencius asked him, 'Do you mean that nature is life, just as you say that white is white?' 'Yes, I do,' he replied.

Mencius added, 'Is the whiteness of a white feather like that of white snow, and the whiteness of white snow like that of white jade?' Gao again said 'Yes.'

Mencius added, 'Is the whiteness of a white feather like the whiteness of white snow? And is the whiteness of white snow like the whiteness of white jade?' Gao again said, 'Yes.'

'Very well,' pursued Mencius. 'Is the nature of a dog like the nature of an ox, and the nature of an ox like the nature of a man?'

'Very well,' Mencius continued. 'Is a dog's nature like an ox's nature? And is an ox's nature like a human's nature?'

The philosopher Gao said, 'To enjoy food and delight in colours is nature. Benevolence is internal and not external; righteousness is external and not internal.'

The philosopher Gao said, 'Enjoying food and delighting in beauty are part of human nature. Benevolence comes from within, not from outside. Righteousness comes from outside, not from within.'

Mencius asked him, 'What is the ground of your saying that benevolence is internal and righteousness external?'

Mencius asked him, 'Why do you say benevolence is internal and righteousness is external?'

He replied, 'There is a man older than I, and I give honour to his age. It is not that there is first in me a principle of such reverence to age. It is just as when there is a white man, and I consider him white; according as he is so externally to me. On this account, I pronounce of righteousness that it is external.'

He replied, 'There is a man older than me, and I respect his age. My respect does not come from a principle of respect for age already within me. It is just like seeing a white man and recognizing him as white because his whiteness exists outside me. For this reason, I say that righteousness is external.'

Mencius said, 'There is no difference between our pronouncing a white horse to be white and our pronouncing a white man to be white. But is there no difference between the regard with which we acknowledge the age of an old horse and that with which we acknowledge the age of an old man? And what is it which is called righteousness? The fact of a man's being old? Or the fact of our giving honour to his age?'

Mencius said, 'Calling a white horse white is no different from calling a white man white. But do we regard an old horse’s age in the same way we regard an old man’s age? And what do we call righteousness? The fact that a man is old? Or the fact that we honor his age?'

Gao said, 'There is my younger brother; I love him. But the younger brother of a man of Qin I do not love: that is, the feeling is determined by myself, and therefore I say that benevolence is internal. On the other hand, I give honour to an old man of Chu, and I also give honour to an old man of my own people: that is, the feeling is determined by the age, and therefore I say that righteousness is external.'

Gao said, 'I love my younger brother. But I do not love the younger brother of a man of Qin. In other words, the feeling comes from me, so I say that benevolence is internal. On the other hand, I respect an old man of Chu, and I also respect an old man of my own people. In other words, the feeling depends on the man's age, so I say that righteousness is external.'

Mencius answered him, 'Our enjoyment of meat roasted by a man of Qin does not differ from our enjoyment of meat roasted by ourselves. Thus, what you insist on takes place also in the case of such things, and will you say likewise that our enjoyment of a roast is external?'

Mencius answered him, 'We enjoy meat roasted by a man of Qin just as much as meat we roast ourselves. So your argument also applies to things like roast meat. Would you also say that our enjoyment of a roast is external?'

The disciple Meng Ji asked Gong Du, saying, 'On what ground is it said that righteousness is internal?' Gong Du replied, 'We therein act out our feeling of respect, and therefore it is said to be internal.'

The disciple Meng Ji asked Gong Du, 'Why is righteousness said to come from within?' Gong Du replied, 'When we act righteously, we express our feeling of respect. That is why righteousness is said to come from within.'

The other objected, 'Suppose the case of a villager older than your elder brother by one year, to which of them would you show the greater respect?' 'To my brother,' was the reply.

The other objected, 'Suppose a villager is one year older than your older brother. Who would you show more respect to?' 'My brother,' came the reply.

'But for which of them would you first pour out wine at a feast?' 'For the villager.'

'But who would you pour wine for first at a feast?' 'The villager.'

Meng Ji argued, 'Now your feeling of reverence rests on the one, and now the honour due to age is rendered to the other - this is certainly determined by what is without, and does not proceed from within.'

Meng Ji argued, 'At one moment, you feel reverence for one person. At another, you give someone else the respect due to age. Your respect is certainly determined by external circumstances and does not come from within.'

Gong Du was unable to reply, and told the conversation to Mencius. Mencius said, 'You should ask him, "Which do you respect most, your uncle, or your younger brother?" He will answer, "My uncle." Ask him again, "If your younger brother be personating a dead ancestor, to which do you show the greater respect, to him or to your uncle?" He will say, "To my younger brother." You can go on, "But where is the respect due, as you said, to your uncle?" He will reply to this, "I show the respect to my younger brother, because of the position which he occupies," and you can likewise say, "So my respect to the villager is because of the position which he occupies. Ordinarily, my respect is rendered to my elder brother; for a brief season, on occasion, it is rendered to the villager."'

Gong Du could not answer, so he reported the conversation to Mencius. Mencius said, 'You should ask him, "Whom do you respect more, your uncle or your younger brother?" He will answer, "My uncle." Ask him again, "If your younger brother represents a dead ancestor in a ceremony, whom do you show greater respect? Your younger brother or your uncle?" He will say, "My younger brother." You can go on, "But what about the respect you said you owe your uncle?" He will reply, "I show respect to my younger brother because of his role." You can then say, "Likewise, I respect the villager because of his role. Usually, I show respect to my elder brother. But on certain occasions, I show respect to the villager for a short time."'

Meng Ji heard this and observed, 'When respect is due to my uncle, I respect him, and when respect is due to my younger brother, I respect him; the thing is certainly determined by what is without, and does not proceed from within.'

Meng Ji heard this and said, 'When my uncle deserves respect, I respect him. And when my younger brother deserves respect, I respect him. So respect is certainly determined by external circumstances and does not come from within.'

Gong Du replied, 'In winter we drink things hot, in summer we drink things cold; and so, on your principle, eating and drinking also depend on what is external!'

Gong Du replied, 'In winter we drink hot drinks, and in summer we drink cold drinks. So, by your reasoning, eating and drinking also depend on external things!'

The disciple Gong Du said, 'The philosopher Gao says, "Man's nature is neither good nor bad." Some say, "Man's nature may be made to practise good, and it may be made to practise evil, and accordingly, under Wen and Wu, the people loved what was good, while under Yu and Li, they loved what was cruel." Some say, "The nature of some is good, and the nature of others is bad. Hence it was that under such a sovereign as Yao there yet appeared Xiang; that with such a father as Gu Sou there yet appeared Shun; and that with Zhou for their sovereign, and the son of their elder brother besides, there were found Qi, the viscount of Wei, and the prince Bi Gan. And now you say, "The nature is good." Then are all those wrong?'

The disciple Gong Du said, 'The philosopher Gao says, "Human nature is neither good nor bad." Some say, "Human nature can be trained to do good, and it can be trained to do evil. So under Wen and Wu, the people loved what was good. Under Yu and Li, the people loved what was cruel." Some say, "Some people have a good nature, and others have a bad nature. That is why someone like Xiang appeared even under a ruler like Yao. It is also why a father like Gu Sou had a son like Shun. And Qi, the viscount of Wei, and the prince Bi Gan lived under Zhou as their ruler. Zhou was also the son of their elder brother." Now you say, "Human nature is good." Are all those views wrong, then?'

Mencius said, 'From the feelings proper to it, it is constituted for the practice of what is good. This is what I mean in saying that the nature is good. If men do what is not good, the blame cannot be imputed to their natural powers. The feeling of commiseration belongs to all men; so does that of shame and dislike; and that of reverence and respect; and that of approving and disapproving. The feeling of commiseration implies the principle of benevolence; that of shame and dislike, the principle of righteousness; that of reverence and respect, the principle of propriety; and that of approving and disapproving, the principle of knowledge. Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and knowledge are not infused into us from without. We are certainly furnished with them. And a different view is simply owing to want of reflection. Hence it is said, "Seek and you will find them. Neglect and you will lose them." Men differ from one another in regard to them - some as much again as others, some five times as much, and some to an incalculable amount - it is because they cannot carry out fully their natural powers. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Heaven in producing mankind, Gave them their various faculties and relations with their specific laws. These are the invariable rules of nature for all to hold, And all love this admirable virtue." Confucius said, "The maker of this ode knew indeed the principle of our nature!" We may thus see that every faculty and relation must have its law, and since there are invariable rules for all to hold, they consequently love this admirable virtue.'

Mencius said, 'Human nature, with its natural feelings, is suited to doing good. This is what I mean when I say human nature is good. If people do wrong, their natural abilities cannot be blamed. All people have feelings of compassion, shame and dislike, reverence and respect, and approval and disapproval. Compassion contains the principle of benevolence. Shame and dislike contain the principle of righteousness. Reverence and respect contain the principle of proper conduct. Approval and disapproval contain the principle of knowledge. Benevolence, righteousness, proper conduct, and knowledge are not put into us from outside. We certainly have these qualities within us. Believing otherwise is simply a failure to reflect. That is why it is said, "Seek these qualities and you will find them. Neglect these qualities and you will lose them." People differ in how fully they possess these qualities. Some have twice as much as others, some five times as much, and some immeasurably more. These differences arise because people fail to develop their natural abilities fully. The Book of Poetry says, "When Heaven created mankind, it gave people their various abilities and relationships, each with specific laws. These are the unchanging rules of nature for everyone to follow, and everyone loves this admirable virtue." Confucius said, "The writer of this ode truly understood the principle of human nature!" We can therefore see that every ability and relationship must have its own law. Since there are unchanging rules for everyone to follow, everyone consequently loves this admirable virtue.'

Mencius said, 'In good years the children of the people are most of them good, while in bad years the most of them abandon themselves to evil. It is not owing to any difference of their natural powers conferred by Heaven that they are thus different. The abandonment is owing to the circumstances through which they allow their minds to be ensnared and drowned in evil. There now is barley. Let it be sown and covered up; the ground being the same, and the time of sowing likewise the same, it grows rapidly up, and, when the full time is come, it is all found to be ripe. Although there may be inequalities of produce, that is owing to the difference of the soil, as rich or poor, to the unequal nourishment afforded by the rains and dews, and to the different ways in which man has performed his business in reference to it. Thus all things which are the same in kind are like to one another; why should we doubt in regard to man, as if he were a solitary exception to this? The sage and we are the same in kind. In accordance with this the scholar Long said, "If a man make hempen sandals without knowing the size of people's feet, yet I know that he will not make them like baskets." Sandals are all like one another, because all men's feet are like one another. So with the mouth and flavours - all mouths have the same relishes. Yi Ya only apprehended before me what my mouth relishes. Suppose that his mouth in its relish for flavours differed from that of other men, as is the case with dogs or horses which are not the same in kind with us, why should all men be found following Yi Ya in their relishes? In the matter of tastes all the people model themselves after Yi Ya; that is, the mouths of all men are like one another. And so also it is with the ear. In the matter of sounds, the whole people model themselves after the music-master Kuang; that is, the ears of all men are like one another. And so also it is with the eye. In the case of Zi Du, there is no man but would recognise that he was beautiful. Any one who would not recognise the beauty of Zi Du must have no eyes. Therefore I say, Men's mouths agree in having the same relishes; their ears agree in enjoying the same sounds; their eyes agree in recognising the same beauty - shall their minds alone be without that which the similarly approve? What is it then of which they similarly approve? It is, I say, the principles of our nature, and the determinations of righteousness. The sages only apprehended before me that of which my mind approves along with other men. Therefore the principles of our nature and the determinations of righteousness are agreeable to my mind, just as the flesh of grass and grain-fed animals is agreeable to my mouth.'

Mencius said, 'In good years, most of the people's children are good. In bad years, most give themselves over to evil. These differences do not come from differences in the natural abilities Heaven has given them. They give themselves over to evil because their circumstances allow their minds to become trapped and overwhelmed by evil. Consider barley. Sow the seeds and cover them, using the same ground and planting at the same time. The barley grows quickly, and when the proper time comes, all of it is ripe. Although the yields may differ, those differences come from the soil being rich or poor. They also come from unequal nourishment from rain and dew, and from differences in how people tend the crop. So all things of the same kind are alike. Why should we doubt this about human beings, as though they alone were an exception? The sage and we are of the same kind. As the scholar Long said, "If someone makes hemp sandals without knowing the size of people's feet, I still know something about the result. The sandals will not look like baskets." All sandals are alike because all people's feet are alike. The same is true of mouths and flavors. All mouths enjoy the same tastes. Yi Ya simply understood before I did what my mouth enjoys. Suppose his taste in flavors differed from other people's, as dogs' or horses' tastes differ from ours. Dogs and horses are not of the same kind as we are. If Yi Ya's tastes differed like that, why would everyone follow his preferences? Everyone takes Yi Ya as a model in matters of taste. This shows that all people's mouths are alike. The same is true of ears. Everyone takes the music-master Kuang as a model in matters of sound. This shows that all people's ears are alike. The same is true of eyes. There is no one who would not recognize Zi Du's beauty. Anyone who failed to recognize Zi Du's beauty must have no eyes. So I say that people's mouths agree in enjoying the same flavors. Their ears agree in enjoying the same sounds. Their eyes agree in recognizing the same beauty. Can their minds alone have nothing they all approve of? What, then, do their minds all approve of? I say they approve of the principles of human nature and judgments of what is right. The sages simply understood before I did what my mind, like everyone else's, approves of. So the principles of human nature and judgments of what is right please my mind. They do so just as the meat of grass-fed and grain-fed animals pleases my mouth.'

Mencius said, 'The trees of the Niu mountain were once beautiful. Being situated, however, in the borders of a large State, they were hewn down with axes and bills - and could they retain their beauty? Still through the activity of the vegetative life day and night, and the nourishing influence of the rain and dew, they were not without buds and sprouts springing forth, but then came the cattle and goats and browsed upon them. To these things is owing the bare and stripped appearance of the mountain, and when people now see it, they think it was never finely wooded. But is this the nature of the mountain? And so also of what properly belongs to man; shall it be said that the mind of any man was without benevolence and righteousness? The way in which a man loses his proper goodness of mind is like the way in which the trees are denuded by axes and bills. Hewn down day after day, can it - the mind - retain its beauty? But there is a development of its life day and night, and in the calm air of the morning, just between night and day, the mind feels in a degree those desires and aversions which are proper to humanity, but the feeling is not strong, and it is fettered and destroyed by what takes place during the day. This fettering taking place again and again, the restorative influence of the night is not sufficient to preserve the proper goodness of the mind; and when this proves insufficient for that purpose, the nature becomes not much different from that of the irrational animals, and when people now see it, they think that it never had those powers which I assert. But does this condition represent the feelings proper to humanity? Therefore, if it receive its proper nourishment, there is nothing which will not grow. If it lose its proper nourishment, there is nothing which will not decay away. Confucius said, "Hold it fast, and it remains with you. Let it go, and you lose it. Its outgoing and incoming cannot be defined as to time or place." It is the mind of which this is said!'

Mencius said, 'The trees of the Niu mountain were once beautiful. But the mountain stood on the outskirts of a large State, and people cut down its trees with axes and billhooks. How could the trees keep their beauty? Still, growth continued day and night, and rain and dew nourished them. Buds and shoots sprang up, but then cattle and goats came and ate them. These things have left the mountain bare and stripped. When people see the mountain now, they think it was never covered with beautiful woods. But is this the mountain’s true nature? The same is true of what naturally belongs to human beings. Can we say that anyone’s mind was ever without kindness and a sense of right? People lose their natural goodness just as trees are stripped away by axes and billhooks. Cut down day after day, how can the mind keep its beauty? Yet the mind continues to renew itself day and night. In the calm morning air, between night and day, the mind feels some of humanity’s natural likes and dislikes. But these feelings are weak, and the day’s events restrain and destroy them. When this happens again and again, the night’s restoring influence cannot preserve the mind’s natural goodness. When that nightly renewal is not enough, human nature becomes little different from the nature of animals without reason. People who see someone in this condition think that person never had the capacities I describe. But does this condition reflect the feelings natural to human beings? So, with proper nourishment, there is nothing that will not grow. Without proper nourishment, there is nothing that will not decay. Confucius said, "Hold on to it, and it stays with you. Let it go, and you lose it. There is no fixed time or place for its coming and going." He was speaking of the mind!'

Mencius said, 'It is not to be wondered at that the king is not wise! Suppose the case of the most easily growing thing in the world; if you let it have one day's genial heat, and then expose it for ten days to cold, it will not be able to grow. It is but seldom that I have an audience of the king, and when I retire, there come all those who act upon him like the cold. Though I succeed in bringing out some buds of goodness, of what avail is it? Now chess-playing is but a small art, but without his whole mind being given, and his will bent, to it, a man cannot succeed at it. Chess Qiu is the best chess-player in all the kingdom. Suppose that he is teaching two men to play. The one gives to the subject his whole mind and bends to it all his will, doing nothing but listening to Chess Qiu. The other, although he seems to be listening to him, has his whole mind running on a swan which he thinks is approaching, and wishes to bend his bow, adjust the string to the arrow, and shoot it. Although he is learning along with the other, he does not come up to him. Why? Because his intelligence is not equal? Not so.'

Mencius said, 'It is no wonder the king is not wise! Consider the easiest thing in the world to grow. If you give it one day of gentle warmth, then ten days of cold, it cannot grow. I rarely get to speak with the king. When I leave, all those whose influence is like the cold come to him. Even if I manage to bring out some buds of goodness, what use is that? Playing chess is only a minor skill. But a man cannot succeed at chess without giving it his full attention and effort. Chess Qiu is the best chess-player in the whole kingdom. Suppose he is teaching two men to play. One gives chess his full attention and effort, doing nothing but listening to Chess Qiu. Although the other seems to be listening, his mind is entirely on a swan he thinks is approaching. He wants to draw his bow, fit an arrow to the string, and shoot the swan. Although he is learning alongside the first man, he does not do as well. Why? Is he less intelligent? No.'

Mencius said, 'I like fish, and I also like bear's paws. If I cannot have the two together, I will let the fish go, and take the bear's paws. So, I like life, and I also like righteousness. If I cannot keep the two together, I will let life go, and choose righteousness. I like life indeed, but there is that which I like more than life, and therefore, I will not seek to possess it by any improper ways. I dislike death indeed, but there is that which I dislike more than death, and therefore there are occasions when I will not avoid danger. If among the things which man likes there were nothing which he liked more than life, why should he not use every means by which he could preserve it? If among the things which man dislikes there were nothing which he disliked more than death, why should he not do everything by which he could avoid danger? There are cases when men by a certain course might preserve life, and they do not employ it; when by certain things they might avoid danger, and they will not do them. Therefore, men have that which they like more than life, and that which they dislike more than death. They are not men of distinguished talents and virtue only who have this mental nature. All men have it; what belongs to such men is simply that they do not lose it. Here are a small basket of rice and a platter of soup, and the case is one in which the getting them will preserve life, and the want of them will be death; if they are offered with an insulting voice, even a tramper will not receive them, or if you first tread upon them, even a beggar will not stoop to take them. And yet a man will accept of ten thousand zhong, without any consideration of propriety or righteousness. What can the ten thousand chung add to him? When he takes them, is it not that he may obtain beautiful mansions, that he may secure the services of wives and concubines, or that the poor and needy of his acquaintance may be helped by him? In the former case the offered bounty was not received, though it would have saved from death, and now the emolument is taken for the sake of beautiful mansions. The bounty that would have preserved from death was not received, and the emolument is taken to get the service of wives and concubines. The bounty that would have saved from death was not received, and the emolument is taken that one's poor and needy acquaintance may be helped by him. Was it then not possible likewise to decline this? This is a case of what is called "Losing the proper nature of one's mind."'

Mencius said, 'I like fish, and I also like bear’s paws. If I cannot have both, I will give up the fish and choose the bear’s paws. Likewise, I value life, and I also value righteousness. If I cannot keep both, I will give up life and choose righteousness. I do value life, but I value something else more. So I will not try to preserve my life by improper means. I do dislike death, but I dislike something else more. So there are times when I will not avoid danger. Suppose people valued nothing more than life. Why would they not use every possible means to preserve their lives? Suppose people disliked nothing more than death. Why would they not do everything possible to avoid danger? Sometimes people could preserve their lives by taking a certain course, yet they refuse to take that course. Sometimes people could avoid danger by doing certain things, yet they refuse to do those things. So people value something more than life and dislike something more than death. This way of thinking belongs not only to people of exceptional ability and virtue. Everyone has it. What sets those exceptional people apart is simply that they do not lose it. Here is a small basket of rice and a bowl of soup. Someone who gets this food will live, and someone who goes without it will die. Yet if the food is offered with insults, even a wanderer will refuse it. If you first trample on the food, even a beggar will not stoop to take it. And yet a person will accept ten thousand zhong without considering whether accepting such a payment is proper or righteous. What can those ten thousand zhong add to his life? Does he accept the payment to obtain beautiful mansions, to secure the services of wives and concubines? Or does he accept the payment so that he can help the poor and needy people he knows? Before, he refused food even though accepting the food would have saved him from death. Now he accepts payment for the sake of beautiful mansions. Before, he refused food that would have saved him from death. Now he accepts payment to secure the services of wives and concubines. Before, he refused food that would have saved him from death. Now he accepts payment so that he can help the poor and needy people he knows. Could he not have refused this payment too? This is what is called "losing the true nature of one’s mind."'

Mencius said, 'Benevolence is man's mind, and righteousness is man's path. How lamentable is it to neglect the path and not pursue it, to lose this mind and not know to seek it again! When men's fowls and dogs are lost, they know to seek for them again, but they lose their mind, and do not know to seek for it. The great end of learning is nothing else but to seek for the lost mind.'

Mencius said, 'Kindness is the human mind, and doing what is right is the human path. How sad to neglect this path and not follow it! How sad to lose this mind and not know to seek it again! When people lose their chickens and dogs, they know to look for them. But when people lose their mind, they do not know to look for it. The ultimate purpose of learning is nothing more than to recover the lost mind.'

Mencius said, 'Here is a man whose fourth finger is bent and cannot be stretched out straight. It is not painful, nor does it incommode his business, and yet if there be any one who can make it straight, he will not think the way from Qin to Chu far to go to him; because his finger is not like the finger of other people. When a man's finger is not like those of other people, he knows to feel dissatisfied, but if his mind be not like that of other people, he does not know to feel dissatisfaction. This is called "Ignorance of the relative importance of things."'

Mencius said, 'Here is a man whose fourth finger is bent and cannot be straightened. The finger causes no pain and does not interfere with his work. Yet if anyone can straighten the finger, he will not consider even the journey from Qin to Chu too far. He would travel that distance because his finger is unlike other people's fingers. When a man's finger is unlike other people's fingers, he knows he should be dissatisfied. But if his mind is unlike other people's minds, he does not know he should be dissatisfied. This is called "Not knowing the relative importance of things."'

Mencius said, 'Anybody who wishes to cultivate the tong or the zi, which may be grasped with both hands, perhaps with one, knows by what means to nourish them. In the case of their own persons, men do not know by what means to nourish them. Is it to be supposed that their regard of their own persons is inferior to their regard for a tong or zi? Their want of reflection is extreme.'

Mencius said, 'Anyone who wants to grow a tong or zi knows how to nourish these trees. Their trunks can be grasped with both hands, perhaps even with one. Yet people do not know how to nourish themselves. Can we suppose people care less about themselves than about a tong or zi? Their failure to reflect is extreme.'

Mencius said, 'There is no part of himself which a man does not love, and as he loves all, so he must nourish all. There is not an inch of skin which he does not love, and so there is not an inch of skin which he will not nourish. For examining whether his way of nourishing be good or not, what other rule is there but this, that he determine by reflecting on himself where it should be applied? Some parts of the body are noble, and some ignoble; some great, and some small. The great must not be injured for the small, nor the noble for the ignoble. He who nourishes the little belonging to him is a little man, and he who nourishes the great is a great man. Here is a plantation-keeper, who neglects his wu and jia, and cultivates his sour jujube-trees; he is a poor plantation-keeper. He who nourishes one of his fingers, neglecting his shoulders or his back, without knowing that he is doing so, is a man who resembles a hurried wolf. A man who only eats and drinks is counted mean by others; because he nourishes what is little to the neglect of what is great. If a man, fond of his eating and drinking, were not to neglect what is of more importance, how should his mouth and belly be considered as no more than an inch of skin?'

Mencius said, 'There is no part of himself that a man does not love. Since he loves every part, he must nourish every part. There is not an inch of skin he does not love, so he will nourish every inch. How can he judge whether he is nourishing himself well? What other rule is there but to reflect on himself and decide where his care should go? Some parts of the body are noble, and some are lowly. Some are greater, and some are lesser. The greater must not be harmed for the sake of the lesser, nor the noble for the lowly. A man who nourishes his lesser parts is a lesser man. A man who nourishes his greater parts is a great man. Consider a grower who neglects his wu and jia trees but tends his sour jujube trees. He is a poor grower. A man who nourishes one finger while neglecting his shoulders or back, without realizing his mistake, resembles a frenzied wolf. Others look down on a man who cares only about eating and drinking. They do so because he nourishes his lesser parts while neglecting his greater parts. But suppose a man who enjoys eating and drinking did not neglect what matters more. Why should his mouth and belly then be considered worth no more than an inch of skin?'

The disciple Gong Du said, 'All are equally men, but some are great men, and some are little men - how is this?'

The disciple Gong Du said, 'All are equally human, but some are great people, and some are lesser people. Why is that?'

Mencius replied, 'Those who follow that part of themselves which is great are great men; those who follow that part which is little are little men.'

Mencius replied, 'Those who follow the greater part of themselves are great people. Those who follow the lesser part of themselves are lesser people.'

Gong Du pursued, 'All are equally men, but some follow that part of themselves which is great, and some follow that part which is little - how is this?'

Gong Du continued, 'All are equally human, but some follow the greater part of themselves, and some follow the lesser part. Why do people differ in this way?'

Mencius answered, 'The senses of hearing and seeing do not think, and are obscured by external things. When one thing comes into contact with another, as a matter of course it leads it away. To the mind belongs the office of thinking. By thinking, it gets the right view of things; by neglecting to think, it fails to do this. These - the senses and the mind - are what Heaven has given to us. Let a man first stand fast in the supremacy of the nobler part of his constitution, and the inferior part will not be able to take it from him. It is simply this which makes the great man.'

Mencius answered, 'The senses of hearing and sight do not think, and external things cloud them. When one thing comes into contact with another, it naturally draws the other away. The mind's role is to think. By thinking, the mind gains a correct understanding of things. By failing to think, the mind fails to gain that understanding. Heaven has given us both the senses and the mind. Let a man first firmly establish the authority of the nobler part of his nature. Then the lower part will not be able to take that authority away from him. This alone is what makes a great man.'

Mencius said, 'There is a nobility of Heaven, and there is a nobility of man. Benevolence, righteousness, self-consecration, and fidelity, with unwearied joy in these virtues; these constitute the nobility of Heaven. To be a gong, a qing, or a da fu; this constitutes the nobility of man. The men of antiquity cultivated their nobility of Heaven, and the nobility of man came to them in its train. The men of the present day cultivate their nobility of Heaven in order to seek for the nobility of man, and when they have obtained that, they throw away the other - their delusion is extreme. The issue is simply this, that they must lose that nobility of man as well.'

Mencius said, 'There is a nobility of Heaven, and there is a nobility of human rank. Kindness, righteousness, devotion to goodness, and faithfulness, with tireless joy in these virtues, make up the nobility of Heaven. Holding the rank of gong, qing, or da fu makes up the nobility of human rank. People in ancient times developed their nobility of Heaven, and human rank followed. People today develop their nobility of Heaven in order to gain human rank. Once they gain that rank, they abandon their nobility of Heaven. They are deeply deluded. In the end, they are bound to lose their human rank as well.'

Mencius said, 'To desire to be honoured is the common mind of men. And all men have in themselves that which is truly honourable. Only they do not think of it. The honour which men confer is not good honour. Those whom Zhao the Great ennobles he can make mean again. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "He has filled us with his wine, He has satiated us with his goodness." "Satiated us with his goodness," that is, satiated us with benevolence and righteousness, and he who is so satiated, consequently, does not wish for the fat meat and fine millet of men. A good reputation and far-reaching praise fall to him, and he does not desire the elegant embroidered garments of men.'

Mencius said, 'Everyone wants to be honored. And all people have something truly honorable within themselves. They simply do not think about it. Honor granted by others is not true honor. Those whom Zhao the Great raises to high rank, he can bring low again. The Book of Poetry says, "He has filled us with his wine, He has satisfied us with his goodness." "Satisfied us with his goodness" means satisfied us with kindness and righteousness. So anyone satisfied in this way does not want the rich meat and fine millet others offer. A good reputation and widespread praise come to him, and he does not desire the fine embroidered clothes others offer.'

Mencius said, 'Benevolence subdues its opposite just as water subdues fire. Those, however, who now-a-days practise benevolence do it as if with one cup of water they could save a whole waggon-load of fuel which was on fire, and when the flames were not extinguished, were to say that water cannot subdue fire. This conduct, moreover, greatly encourages those who are not benevolent. The final issue will simply be this: the loss of that small amount of benevolence.'

Mencius said, 'Benevolence overcomes its opposite just as water puts out fire. Yet people today practice benevolence as if one cup of water could put out a whole wagonload of burning fuel. When the flames remain, they say that water cannot put out fire. This behavior also greatly encourages people who lack benevolence. The final result will simply be the loss of even that small amount of benevolence.'

Mencius said, 'Of all seeds the best are the five kinds of grain, yet if they be not ripe, they are not equal to the ti or the bai. So, the value of benevolence depends entirely on its being brought to maturity.'

Mencius said, 'Of all seeds, the five kinds of grain are the best. Yet if the grains are not ripe, they are not as good as the ti or the bai. So, the value of benevolence depends entirely on its reaching maturity.'

Mencius said, 'Yi, in teaching men to shoot, made it a rule to draw the bow to the full, and his pupils also did the same. A master-workman, in teaching others, uses the compass and square, and his pupils do the same.'

Mencius said, 'When Yi taught men archery, he made a rule of drawing the bow fully. His students did the same. When a master craftsman teaches others, he uses a compass and square. His students use those tools too.'