Duke Wen of Teng

When the prince, afterwards duke Wen of Teng, had to go to Chu, he went by way of Song, and visited Mencius. Mencius discoursed to him how the nature of man is good, and when speaking, always made laudatory reference to Yao and Shun.

When the prince, who later became duke Wen of Teng, had to travel to Chu, he passed through Song. There he visited Mencius. Mencius explained to him that human nature is good and always spoke of Yao and Shun with praise.

When the prince was returning from Chu, he again visited Mencius. Mencius said to him, 'Prince, do you doubt my words? The path is one, and only one. Cheng Gan said to duke Jing of Qi, "They were men. I am a man. Why should I stand in awe of them?" Yan Yuan said, "What kind of man was Shun? What kind of man am I? He who exerts himself will also become such as he was." Gong Ming Yi said, "King Wen is my teacher. How should the duke of Zhou deceive me by those words?" Now, Teng, taking its length with its breadth, will amount, I suppose, to fifty li. It is small, but still sufficient to make a good State. It is said in the Book of History, "If medicine do not raise a commotion in the patient, his disease will not be cured by it."'

When the prince was returning from Chu, he visited Mencius again. Mencius said to him, 'Prince, do you doubt my words? There is one path, and only one. Cheng Gan said to duke Jing of Qi, "They were men. I am a man. Why should I be in awe of them?" Yan Yuan said, "What kind of man was Shun? What kind of man am I? Anyone who makes the effort can become like Shun." Gong Ming Yi said, "King Wen is my teacher. How could the duke of Zhou deceive me with those words?" Now, Teng measures, I suppose, fifty li in length and breadth. It is small, but still large enough to make a good state. The Book of History says, "If medicine does not stir up a reaction in the patient, it will not cure the disease."'

When the duke Ding of Teng died, the prince said to Ran You, 'Formerly, Mencius spoke with me in Song, and in my mind I have never forgotten his words. Now, alas! this great duty to my father devolves upon me; I wish to send you to ask the advice of Mencius, and then to proceed to its various services'

When duke Ding of Teng died, the prince said to Ran You, 'Mencius once spoke with me in Song, and I have never forgotten his words. Now, sadly, the great duty of mourning my father falls to me. I wish to send you to ask Mencius for advice before I carry out the various funeral rites.'

Ran You accordingly proceeded to Zou, and consulted Mencius. Mencius said, 'Is this not good? In discharging the funeral duties to parents, men indeed feel constrained to do their utmost. The philosopher Zeng said, "When parents are alive, they should be served according to propriety; when they are dead, they should be buried according to propriety; and they should be sacrificed to according to propriety - this may be called filial piety." The ceremonies to be observed by the princes I have not learned, but I have heard these points: that the three years' mourning, the garment of coarse cloth with its lower edge even, and the eating of congee, were equally prescribed by the three dynasties, and binding on all, from the sovereign to the mass of the people.'

Ran You then went to Zou and consulted Mencius. Mencius said, 'Is this not good? When carrying out funeral duties for their parents, people do feel bound to do their utmost. The philosopher Zeng said, "While parents are alive, they should be served according to proper ritual. When parents die, they should be buried according to proper ritual, and sacrifices should follow proper ritual too. This may be called filial piety." I have not learned the ceremonies that princes should observe, but I have heard these points. All three dynasties prescribed three years of mourning, a coarse cloth garment with an even lower edge, and eating congee. These requirements applied equally to everyone, from the sovereign to the common people.'

Ran You reported the execution of his commission, and the prince determined that the three years' mourning should be observed. His aged relatives, and the body of the officers, did not wish that it should be so, and said, 'The former princes of Lu, that kingdom which we honour, have, none of them, observed this practice, neither have any of our own former princes observed it. For you to act contrary to their example is not proper. Moreover, the History says, "In the observances of mourning and sacrifice, ancestors are to be followed," meaning that they received those things from a proper source to hand them down.' The prince said again to Ran You, 'Hitherto, I have not given myself to the pursuit of learning, but have found my pleasure in horsemanship and sword-exercise, and now I don't come up to the wishes of my aged relatives and the officers. I am afraid I may not be able to discharge my duty in the great business that I have entered on; do you again consult Mencius for me.'

Ran You reported on his mission, and the prince decided to observe three years of mourning. His elderly relatives and all the officials opposed the decision. They said, 'None of the former princes of Lu, the kingdom we honor, observed this practice. Nor have any of our own former princes observed it. It is not proper for you to go against their example. Moreover, the History says, "In mourning and sacrificial rites, follow your ancestors." This means that the ancestors received these rites from a proper source and passed them down.' The prince said again to Ran You, 'Until now, I have not devoted myself to learning. Instead, I have taken pleasure in riding horses and practicing swordsmanship. Now I fail to meet the wishes of my elderly relatives and the officials. I am afraid I may be unable to fulfill my duty in the great task I have undertaken. Please consult Mencius for me again.'

On this, Ran You went again to Zou, and consulted Mencius. Mencius said, 'It is so, but he may not seek a remedy in others, but only in himself. Confucius said, "When a prince dies, his successor entrusts the administration to the prime minister. He sips the congee. His face is of a deep black. He approaches the place of mourning, and weeps. Of all the officers and inferior ministers there is not one who will presume not to join in the lamentation, he setting them this example. What the superior loves, his inferiors will be found to love exceedingly. The relation between superiors and inferiors is like that between the wind and grass. The grass must bend when the wind blows upon it." The business depends on the prince.'

After this, Ran You went to Zou again and consulted Mencius. Mencius said, 'That is so, but he must seek the remedy only in himself, not in others. Confucius said, "When a prince dies, his successor puts the prime minister in charge of the government. The successor sips rice porridge. His face is dark with grief. He approaches the place of mourning and weeps. With the successor setting this example, not one official or lower-ranking minister will dare refuse to join the mourning. Whatever a superior loves, those under him will love even more. The relationship between superiors and those under them is like the relationship between wind and grass. The grass must bend when the wind blows over it." The matter depends on the prince.'

Ran You returned with this answer to his commission, and the prince said, 'It is so. The matter does indeed depend on me.' So for five months he dwelt in the shed, without issuing an order or a caution. All the officers and his relatives said, 'He may be said to understand the ceremonies.' When the time of interment arrived, they came from all quarters of the State to witness it. Those who had come from other States to condole with him, were greatly pleased with the deep dejection of his countenance and the mournfulness of his wailing and weeping.

Ran You returned with this answer to the task he had been given. The prince said, 'That is true. The matter really does depend on me.' So for five months he lived in the shed, giving no orders or warnings. All the officials and his relatives said, 'He may be said to understand the ceremonies.' When the time came for the burial, people came from every part of the State to witness it. Visitors from other States had come to offer their sympathy. They were greatly pleased by the deep sorrow on his face and his mournful wailing and weeping.

The duke Wen of Teng asked Mencius about the proper way of governing a kingdom. Mencius said, 'The business of the people may not be remissly attended to. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "In the day-light go and gather the grass, And at night twist your ropes; Then get up quickly on the roofs; Soon must we begin sowing again the grain." The way of the people is this: If they have a certain livelihood, they will have a fixed heart; if they have not a certain livelihood, they have not a fixed heart. If they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which they will not do in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflection, of depravity, and of wild license. When they have thus been involved in crime, to follow them up and punish them - this is to entrap the people. How can such a thing as entrapping the people be done under the rule of a benevolent man? Therefore, a ruler who is endowed with talents and virtue will be gravely complaisant and economical, showing a respectful politeness to his ministers, and taking from the people only in accordance with regulated limits. Yang Hu said, "He who seeks to be rich will not be benevolent. He who wishes to be benevolent will not be rich."

The duke Wen of Teng asked Mencius about the proper way to govern a kingdom. Mencius said, 'The people’s livelihoods must not be neglected. The Book of Poetry says, "Gather grass during the day, and twist your ropes at night. Then climb quickly onto the roofs. Soon we must begin sowing grain again." This is how people live: If they have a reliable livelihood, they will have steady moral principles. If they lack a reliable livelihood, they will lack steady moral principles. Without steady moral principles, there is no limit to their recklessness, wrongdoing, corruption, and uncontrolled behavior. Once people have fallen into crime, pursuing and punishing them is setting a trap for them. How can a kind and caring ruler allow the people to be trapped this way? Therefore, a ruler with ability and virtue will be dignified, considerate, and careful with spending. He will treat his ministers with respect and courtesy, and take from the people only within established limits. Yang Hu said, "Anyone who seeks wealth will not be kind and caring. Anyone who wishes to be kind and caring will not be rich."'

'The sovereign of the Xia dynasty enacted the fifty mu allotment, and the payment of a tax. The founder of the Yin enacted the seventy mu allotment, and the system of mutual aid. The founder of the Zhou enacted the hundred mu allotment, and the share system. In reality, what was paid in all these was a tithe. The share system means mutual division. The aid system means mutual dependence. Long said, "For regulating the lands, there is no better system than that of mutual aid, and none which is not better than that of taxing. By the tax system, the regular amount was fixed by taking the average of several years. In good years, when the grain lies about in abundance, much might be taken without its being oppressive, and the actual exaction would be small. But in bad years, the produce being not sufficient to repay the manuring of the fields, this system still requires the taking of the full amount. When the parent of the people causes the people to wear looks of distress, and, after the whole year's toil, yet not to be able to nourish their parents, so that they proceed to borrowing to increase their means, till the old people and children are found lying in the ditches and water-channels - where, in such a case, is his parental relation to the people?" As to the system of hereditary salaries, that is already observed in Teng. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "May the rain come down on our public field, And then upon our private fields!" It is only in the system of mutual aid that there is a public field, and from this passage we perceive that even in the Zhou dynasty this system has been recognised.

'The sovereign of the Xia dynasty established allotments of fifty mu and a tax system. The founder of the Yin established allotments of seventy mu and a system of mutual aid. The founder of the Zhou established allotments of a hundred mu and a share system. In practice, the payment under all three systems was a tenth of the harvest. The share system means dividing among one another. The aid system means depending on one another. Long said, "For managing farmland, no system is better than mutual aid, and every other system is better than taxation. Under the tax system, a fixed payment was set by averaging the harvests of several years. In good years, when grain is plentiful, much could be taken without burdening the people. The amount actually collected would be small. But in bad years, the harvest does not even cover the cost of fertilizing the fields. Yet the tax system still demands the full payment. A ruler is supposed to be a parent to the people. What if he leaves them visibly distressed and unable to feed their parents even after a whole year's work? They then turn to borrowing to make ends meet, until old people and children lie in ditches and watercourses. In such a case, how is the ruler acting as a parent to the people?" As for the system of hereditary salaries, Teng already follows it. The Book of Poetry says, "May the rain fall on our public field, And then on our private fields!" Only the mutual aid system has a public field. From this passage, we can see that even under the Zhou dynasty, the mutual aid system was recognized.

'Establish Xiang, Xu, Xue, and Xiao, all those educational institutions, for the instruction of the people. The name Xiang indicates nourishing as its object; Xiao, indicates teaching; and Xu indicates archery. By the Xia dynasty the name Xiao was used; by the Yin, that of Xu; and by the Zhou, that of Xiang. As to the Xue, they belonged to the three dynasties, and by that name. The object of them all is to illustrate the human relations. When those are thus illustrated by superiors, kindly feeling will prevail among the inferior people below. Should a real sovereign arise, he will certainly come and take an example from you; and thus you will be the teacher of the true sovereign. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Although Zhou was an old country, It received a new destiny." That is said with reference to king Wen. Do you practise those things with vigour, and you also will by them make new your kingdom.'

'Establish Xiang, Xu, Xue, and Xiao, all these educational institutions, to teach the people. The name Xiang points to nurturing as its purpose. Xiao means teaching, and Xu means archery. The Xia dynasty used the name Xiao, the Yin used Xu, and the Zhou used Xiang. Xue existed under all three dynasties and kept the same name. All these institutions aim to make human relationships clear. When those in authority make these relationships clear, kindness will prevail among the ordinary people below them. If a true sovereign arises, he will certainly come and follow your example. You will thus become the teacher of the true sovereign. The Book of Poetry says, "Although Zhou was an old country, It received a new destiny." These words refer to king Wen. Put these teachings into practice with energy, and through them you too will renew your kingdom.'

The duke afterwards sent Bi Zhan to consult Mencius about the nine-squares system of dividing the land. Mencius said to him, 'Since your prince, wishing to put in practice a benevolent government, has made choice of you and put you into this employment, you must exert yourself to the utmost. Now, the first thing towards a benevolent government must be to lay down the boundaries. If the boundaries be not defined correctly, the division of the land into squares will not be equal, and the produce available for salaries will not be evenly distributed. On this account, oppressive rulers and impure ministers are sure to neglect this defining of the boundaries. When the boundaries have been defined correctly, the division of the fields and the regulation of allowances may be determined by you, sitting at your ease. Although the territory of Teng is narrow and small, yet there must be in it men of a superior grade, and there must be in it country-men. If there were not men of a superior grade, there would be none to rule the country-men. If there were not country-men, there would be none to support the men of superior grade. I would ask you, in the remoter districts, observing the nine-squares division, to reserve one division to be cultivated on the system of mutual aid, and in the more central parts of the kingdom, to make the people pay for themselves a tenth part of their produce. From the highest officers down to the lowest, each one must have his holy field, consisting of fifty mu. Let the supernumerary males have their twenty-five mu. On occasions of death, or removal from one dwelling to another, there will be no quitting the district. In the fields of a district, those who belong to the same nine squares render all friendly offices to one another in their going out and coming in, aid one another in keeping watch and ward, and sustain one another in sickness. Thus the people are brought to live in affection and harmony. A square li covers nine squares of land, which nine squares contain nine hundred mu. The central square is the public field, and eight families, each having its private hundred mu, cultivate in common the public field. And not till the public work is finished, may they presume to attend to their private affairs. This is the way by which the country-men are distinguished from those of a superior grade. Those are the great outlines of the system. Happily to modify and adapt it depends on the prince and you.'

The duke later sent Bi Zhan to consult Mencius about the nine-squares system of dividing land. Mencius said to him, 'Your prince wants to establish a benevolent government and has chosen you for this task. So you must make every effort. The first step toward benevolent government must be to establish land boundaries. If the boundaries are not set correctly, the land will not be divided into equal squares. Nor will the produce available for salaries be distributed evenly. For this reason, oppressive rulers and corrupt ministers are sure to neglect the setting of boundaries. Once the boundaries are set correctly, you can easily determine how to divide the fields and regulate allowances. Although Teng's territory is small, it must have both people of higher rank and farmers. Without people of higher rank, there would be no one to govern the farmers. Without farmers, there would be no one to support the people of higher rank. In the outlying districts, I would ask you to follow the nine-squares system. Reserve one square for cultivation through mutual aid. In the kingdom's more central areas, have the people pay one-tenth of their own produce. Every official, from the highest to the lowest, must have a sacred field of fifty mu. Let the additional adult males have twenty-five mu each. When someone dies or moves from one home to another, no one is to leave the district. Within a district, families sharing the same nine squares help one another in every friendly way as they come and go. They help one another keep watch and guard against danger, and care for one another during illness. In this way, the people come to live in affection and harmony. An area one li square contains nine squares of land, totaling nine hundred mu. The central square is the public field. Eight families, each with a private field of one hundred mu, cultivate the public field together. Only after finishing the public work may they attend to their private affairs. This requirement distinguishes farmers from people of higher rank. These are the broad outlines of the system. Making suitable adjustments and putting the system into practice successfully depends on the prince and you.'

There came from Chu to Teng one Xu Xing, who gave out that he acted according to the words of Shen Nong. Coming right to his gate, he addressed the duke Wen, saying, 'A man of a distant region, I have heard that you, Prince, are practising a benevolent government, and I wish to receive a site for a house, and to become one of your people.' The duke Wen gave him a dwelling-place. His disciples, amounting to several tens, all wore clothes of haircloth, and made sandals of hemp and wove mats for a living.

A man named Xu Xing came from Chu to Teng, claiming to follow the teachings of Shen Nong. He went straight to duke Wen's gate and said, 'I come from a distant region. I have heard that you, Prince, govern with kindness. I would like a place to build a house and to become one of your people.' The duke Wen gave him a place to live. Xu Xing had several dozen disciples. All wore clothes made of animal hair and earned a living making hemp sandals and weaving mats.

At the same time, Chen Xiang, a disciple of Chen Liang, and his younger brother, Xin, with their plough-handles and shares on their backs, came from Song to Teng, saying, 'We have heard that you, Prince, are putting into practice the government of the ancient sages, showing that you are likewise a sage. We wish to become the subjects of a sage.' When Chen Xiang saw Xu Xing, he was greatly pleased with him, and, abandoning entirely whatever he had learned, became his disciple.

At the same time, Chen Xiang, a disciple of Chen Liang, came from Song to Teng with his younger brother, Xin. They carried their plough handles and ploughshares on their backs. They said, 'Prince, we have heard that you are governing according to the ways of the ancient sages. This shows that you too are a sage. We wish to become the subjects of a sage.' When Chen Xiang met Xu Xing, he was greatly impressed with him. He abandoned everything he had learned and became Xu Xing's disciple.

Having an interview with Mencius, he related to him with approbation the words of Xu Xing to the following effect: 'The prince of Teng is indeed a worthy prince. He has not yet heard, however, the real doctrines of antiquity. Now, wise and able princes should cultivate the ground equally and along with their people, and eat the fruit of their labour. They should prepare their own meals, morning and evening, while at the same time they carry on their government. But now, the prince of T'ang has his granaries, treasuries, and arsenals, which is an oppressing of the people to nourish himself. How can he be deemed a real worthy prince?'

During a meeting with Mencius, he approvingly repeated Xu Xing's words to this effect: 'The prince of Teng is indeed a worthy prince. However, he has not yet heard the true teachings of antiquity. Wise and capable princes should work the land alongside their people, sharing equally in the labor, and eat what they grow. They should prepare their own meals, morning and evening, while also governing. But now, the prince of T'ang keeps granaries, treasuries, and arsenals, oppressing the people to support himself. How can he be considered a truly worthy prince?'

Mencius said, 'I suppose that Xu Xing sows grain and eats the produce. Is it not so?' 'It is so,' was the answer.

Mencius said, 'I suppose Xu Xing grows grain and eats what he grows. Is that right?' 'Yes,' came the answer.

'I suppose also he weaves cloth, and wears his own manufacture. Is it not so?' 'No. Xu wears clothes of haircloth.'

'I suppose he also weaves cloth and wears clothes he makes himself. Is that right?' 'No. Xu wears clothes made of haircloth.'

'Does he wear a cap?' 'He wears a cap.'

'Does he wear a cap?' 'He wears a cap.'

'What kind of cap?' 'A plain cap.'

'What kind of cap?' 'A plain cap.'

'Is it woven by himself?' 'No. He gets it in exchange for grain.'

'Does he weave it himself?' 'No. He trades grain for it.'

'Why does Xu not weave it himself?' 'That would injure his husbandry.'

'Why doesn't Xu weave it himself?' 'Weaving would interfere with his farming.'

'Does Xu cook his food in boilers and earthenware pans, and does he plough with an iron share?' 'Yes.'

'Does Xu cook his food in pots and earthenware pans, and does he plow with an iron plowshare?' 'Yes.'

'Does he make those articles himself?' 'No. He gets them in exchange for grain.'

'Does he make those items himself?' 'No. He trades grain for them.'

Mencius then said, 'The getting those various articles in exchange for grain, is not oppressive to the potter and the founder, and the potter and the founder in their turn, in exchanging their various articles for grain, are not oppressive to the husbandman. How should such a thing be supposed? And moreover, why does not Xu act the potter and founder, supplying himself with the articles which he uses solely from his own establishment? Why does he go confusedly dealing and exchanging with the handicraftsmen? Why does he not spare himself so much trouble?' Chen Xiang replied, 'The business of the handicraftsman can by no means be carried on along with the business of husbandry.'

Mencius then said, 'Exchanging grain for these goods does not exploit the potter or the metalworker. In turn, exchanging their goods for grain does not mean the potter and metalworker exploit the farmer. How could anyone think otherwise? Moreover, why does Xu not make his own pottery and metal goods, producing everything he uses in his own workshop? Why does he go to all the fuss of trading with craftspeople? Why does he not spare himself so much trouble?' Chen Xiang replied, 'Craftwork cannot possibly be carried on alongside farming.'

Mencius resumed, 'Then, is it the government of the kingdom which alone can be carried on along with the practice of husbandry? Great men have their proper business, and little men have their proper business. Moreover, in the case of any single individual, whatever articles he can require are ready to his hand, being produced by the various handicraftsmen - if he must first make them for his own use, this way of doing would keep all the people running about upon the roads. Hence, there is the saying, "Some labour with their minds, and some labour with their strength. Those who labour with their minds govern others; those who labour with their strength are governed by others. Those who are governed by others support them; those who govern others are supported by them." This is a principle universally recognised.

Mencius continued, 'Then, is governing the kingdom the only work that can be done alongside farming? Great men have their own work, and ordinary men have theirs. Moreover, every item a person might need is readily available, made by the various craftspeople. If everyone had to make those items for their own use first, all the people would be running along the roads. Hence the saying, "Some work with their minds, and some work with their physical strength. Those who work with their minds govern others. Those who work with their physical strength are governed by others. Those who are governed support those who govern them. Those who govern are supported by those they govern." This principle is universally recognized.

'In the time of Yao, when the world had not yet been perfectly reduced to order, the vast waters, flowing out of their channels, made a universal inundation. Vegetation was luxuriant, and birds and beasts swarmed. The various kinds of grain could not be grown. The birds and beasts pressed upon men. The paths marked by the feet of beasts and prints of birds crossed one another throughout the Middle Kingdom. To Yao alone this caused anxious sorrow. He raised Shun to office, and measures to regulate the disorder were set forth. Shun committed to Yi the direction of the fire to be employed, and Yi set fire to, and consumed, the forests and vegetation on the mountains and in the marshes, so that the birds and beasts fled away to hide themselves. Yu separated the nine streams, cleared the courses of the Ji and Ta, and led them all to the sea. He opened a vent also for the Ru and Han, and regulated the course of the Huai and Si, so that they all flowed into the Jiang. When this was done, it became possible for the people of the Middle Kingdom to cultivate the ground and get food for themselves. During that time, Yu was eight years away from his home, and though he thrice passed the door of it, he did not enter. Although he had wished to cultivate the ground, could he have done so? The Minister of Agriculture taught the people to sow and reap, cultivating the five kinds of grain. When the five kinds of grain were brought to maturity, the people all obtained a subsistence. But men possess a moral nature; and if they are well fed, warmly clad, and comfortably lodged, without being taught at the same time, they become almost like the beasts. This was a subject of anxious solicitude to the sage Shun, and he appointed Xie to be the Minister of Instruction, to teach the relations of humanity: how, between father and son, there should be affection; between sovereign and minister, righteousness; between husband and wife, attention to their separate functions; between old and young, a proper order; and between friends, fidelity. The high meritorious sovereign said to him, "Encourage them; lead them on; rectify them; straighten them; help them; give them wings - thus causing them to become possessors of themselves. Then follow this up by stimulating them, and conferring benefits on them." When the sages were exercising their solicitude for the people in this way, had they leisure to cultivate the ground?

'In the time of Yao, the world was not yet fully ordered. Vast waters overflowed their channels and flooded the whole land. Plants grew thickly, and birds and beasts swarmed everywhere. The various kinds of grain could not be grown. Birds and beasts crowded in on people. Animal tracks and bird footprints crisscrossed the Middle Kingdom. Yao alone felt deep concern about these troubles. He appointed Shun to office, and plans were made to bring the disorder under control. Shun put Yi in charge of using fire. Yi burned the forests and vegetation on the mountains and in the marshes, so birds and beasts fled into hiding. Yu separated the nine streams, cleared the channels of the Ji and Ta, and guided them all to the sea. He also opened outlets for the Ru and Han and regulated the courses of the Huai and Si. As a result, all these rivers flowed into the Jiang. Once this work was done, the people of the Middle Kingdom could farm the land and feed themselves. During that time, Yu was away from home for eight years. Although he passed his own door three times, he never went inside. Even if he had wanted to farm the land, could he have done so? The Minister of Agriculture taught the people to sow and harvest the five kinds of grain. When all five kinds ripened, everyone had enough to live on. But people have a moral nature. If they are well fed, warmly clothed, and comfortably housed, yet receive no teaching, they become almost like beasts. This deeply concerned the sage Shun. He appointed Xie as Minister of Instruction to teach people the principles of human relationships. Fathers and sons should love one another. Sovereigns and ministers should act rightly toward one another. Husbands and wives should attend to their separate roles. Old and young should observe the proper order. Friends should be faithful to one another. The sovereign, whose achievements were great, told Xie, "Encourage them. Guide them forward. Correct them and set them straight. Help them and give them wings, so that they learn to govern themselves. Then spur them on and give them benefits." When the sages cared for the people in these ways, did they have time to farm the land?

'What Yao felt giving him anxiety was the not getting Shun. What Shun felt giving him anxiety was the not getting Yu and Gao Yao. But he whose anxiety is about his hundred mu not being properly cultivated, is a mere husbandman. The imparting by a man to others of his wealth, is called "kindness." The teaching others what is good, is called "the exercise of fidelity." The finding a man who shall benefit the kingdom, is called "benevolence." Hence to give the throne to another man would be easy; to find a man who shall benefit the kingdom is difficult. Confucius said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign. It is only Heaven that is great, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. Princely indeed was Shun! How majestic was he, having possession of the kingdom, and yet seeming as if it were nothing to him!" In their governing the kingdom, were there no subjects on which Yao and Shun employed their minds? There were subjects, only they did not employ their minds on the cultivation of the ground.

'Yao’s concern was that he had not found Shun. Shun’s concern was that he had not found Yu and Gao Yao. But a man concerned about properly cultivating his hundred mu of land is merely a farmer. Sharing your wealth with others is called "kindness." Teaching others what is good is called "acting faithfully." Finding a man who will benefit the kingdom is called "benevolence." So giving the throne to another man would be easy. Finding a man who will benefit the kingdom is difficult. Confucius said, "How great Yao was as a ruler! Only Heaven is great, and only Yao matched Heaven. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no words for his virtue. How truly regal Shun was! How majestic he was, possessing the kingdom yet seeming as if the kingdom meant nothing to him!" Did Yao and Shun have nothing to think about while governing the kingdom? They had matters to think about, but they did not concern themselves with cultivating the land.

'I have heard of men using the doctrines of our great land to change barbarians, but I have never yet heard of any being changed by barbarians. Chen Liang was a native of Chu. Pleased with the doctrines of Zhou Gong and Zhong Ni, he came northwards to the Middle Kingdom and studied them. Among the scholars of the northern regions, there was perhaps no one who excelled him. He was what you call a scholar of high and distinguished qualities. You and your brother followed him some tens of years, and when your master died, you forthwith turned away from him. Formerly, when Confucius died, after three vears had elapsed, his disciples collected their baggage, and prepared to return to their several homes. But on entering to take their leave of Zi Gong, as they looked towards one another, they wailed, till they all lost their voices. After this they returned to their homes, but Zi Gong went back, and built a house for himself on the altar-ground, where he lived alone other three years, before he returned home. On another occasion, Zi Xia, Zi Zhang, and Zi You, thinking that You Ruo resembled the sage, wished to render to him the same observances which they had rendered to Confucius. They tried to force the disciple Zeng to join with them, but he said, "This may not be done. What has been washed in the waters of the Jiang and Han, and bleached in the autumn sun - how glistening is it! Nothing can be added to it." Now here is this shrike-tongued barbarian of the south, whose doctrines are not those of the ancient kings. You turn away from your master and become his disciple. Your conduct is different indeed from that of the philosopher Zeng. I have heard of birds leaving dark valleys to remove to lofty trees, but I have not heard of their descending from lofty trees to enter into dark valleys. In the Praise-songs of Lu it is said, "He smote the barbarians of the west and the north, He punished Jing and Shu." Thus Zhou Gong would be sure to smite them, and you become their disciple again; it appears that your change is not good.'

'I have heard of men using our great land’s teachings to change barbarians. But I have never heard of anyone being changed by barbarians. Chen Liang was a native of Chu. He admired the teachings of Zhou Gong and Zhong Ni, so he came north to the Middle Kingdom to study them. Among the scholars of the northern regions, perhaps no one surpassed him. He was what you would call a scholar of outstanding ability and character. You and your brother followed him for several decades. Yet when your master died, you immediately turned away from him. When Confucius died, his disciples stayed for three years. Then they packed their belongings and prepared to return to their homes. But when they went in to say goodbye to Zi Gong, they looked at one another and wept. They wept until they all lost their voices. Afterward, they returned home. But Zi Gong went back and built himself a house on the altar grounds. He lived there alone for another three years before returning home. On another occasion, Zi Xia, Zi Zhang, and Zi You thought You Ruo resembled the sage. They wanted to honor You Ruo with the same ceremonies they had performed for Confucius. They tried to force the disciple Zeng to join them, but he said, "We must not do this. Think of something washed in the waters of the Jiang and Han, then bleached in the autumn sun. How brightly it shines! Nothing can improve it." Now here is this barbarian from the south, chattering like a shrike, whose teachings differ from those of the ancient kings. You turn away from your master and become this man’s disciple. Your conduct is very different indeed from that of the philosopher Zeng. I have heard of birds leaving dark valleys to settle in tall trees. But I have never heard of birds leaving tall trees to descend into dark valleys. The Praise-songs of Lu say, "He struck down the barbarians of the west and the north. He punished Jing and Shu." So Zhou Gong would certainly strike them down, yet you turn instead to become their disciple. It seems that your change is not a good one.'

Chen Xiang said, 'If Xu's doctrines were followed, then there would not be two prices in the market, nor any deceit in the kingdom. If a boy of five cubits were sent to the market, no one would impose on him; linen and silk of the same length would be of the same price. So it would be with bundles of hemp and silk, being of the same weight; with the different kinds of grain, being the same in quantity; and with shoes which were of the same size.' Mencius replied, 'It is the nature of things to be of unequal quality. Some are twice, some five times, some ten times, some a hundred times, some a thousand times, some ten thousand times as valuable as others. If you reduce them all to the same standard, that must throw the kingdom into confusion. If large shoes and small shoes were of the same price, who would make them? For people to follow the doctrines of Xu, would be for them to lead one another on to practise deceit. How can they avail for the government of a State?'

Chen Xiang said, 'If Xu's teachings were followed, there would be no different prices in the market and no deception in the kingdom. If a boy five cubits tall were sent to the market, no one would cheat him. Linen and silk of the same length would have the same price. The same would apply to bundles of hemp and silk of equal weight. Different kinds of grain would cost the same for equal quantities, as would shoes of the same size.' Mencius replied, 'Things naturally differ in quality. Some are worth twice as much as others. Some are worth five, ten, a hundred, a thousand, or ten thousand times as much. If you price them all by the same standard, you must throw the kingdom into confusion. If large shoes and small shoes cost the same, who would make them? If people followed Xu's teachings, they would lead one another into deception. How could those teachings help govern a state?'

The Mohist, Yi Zhi, sought, through Xu Bi, to see Mencius. Mencius said, 'I indeed wish to see him, but at present I am still unwell. When I am better, I will myself go and see him. He need not come here again.'

The Mohist, Yi Zhi, asked through Xu Bi to meet Mencius. Mencius said, 'I do want to see him, but I am still unwell. When I am better, I will go and see him myself. He does not need to come here again.'

Next day, Yi Zhi again sought to see Mencius. Mencius said, 'To-day I am able to see him. But if I do not correct his errors, the true principles will not be fully evident. Let me first correct him. I have heard that this Yi is a Mohist. Now Mo considers that in the regulation of funeral matters a spare simplicity should be the rule. Yi thinks with Mo's doctrines to change the customs of the kingdom - how does he regard them as if they were wrong, and not honour them? Notwithstanding his views, Yi buried his parents in a sumptuous manner, and so he served them in the way which his doctrines discountenance.'

The next day, Yi Zhi again tried to see Mencius. Mencius said, 'Today I can see him. But if I do not correct his errors, the true principles will not be fully clear. Let me correct him first. I have heard that Yi is a Mohist. Now Mo believes that funerals should be simple and modest. Yi intends to use Mo's teachings to change the kingdom's customs. How can he treat those teachings as wrong and fail to honor them? Despite his views, Yi gave his parents lavish funerals. So he honored his parents in a way his teachings reject.'

The disciple Xu informed Yi of these remarks. Yi said, 'Even according to the principles of the learned, we find that the ancients acted towards the people "as if they were watching over an infant." What does this expression mean? To me it sounds that we are to love all without difference of degree; but the manifestation of love must begin with our parents.'

The disciple Xu told Yi about these remarks. Yi said, 'Even according to scholars’ principles, the ancients treated the people "as if they were watching over an infant." What does this expression mean? To me, it seems to mean we should love everyone equally. But we must begin by showing love to our parents.'

Xu reported this reply to Mencius, who said, 'Now, does Yi really think that a man's affection for the child of his brother is merely like his affection for the infant of a neighbour? What is to be approved in that expression is simply this: that if an infant crawling about is likely to fall into a well, it is no crime in the infant. Moreover, Heaven gives birth to creatures in such a way that they have one root, and Yi makes them to have two roots. This is the cause of his error. And, in the most ancient times, there were some who did not inter their parents. When their parents died, they took them up and threw them into some water-channel. Afterwards, when passing by them, they saw foxes and wild-cats devouring them, and flies and gnats biting at them. The perspiration started out upon their foreheads, and they looked away, unable to bear the sight. It was not on account of other people that this perspiration flowed. The emotions of their hearts affected their faces and eyes, and instantly they went home, and came back with baskets and spades and covered the bodies. If the covering them thus was indeed right, you may see that the filial son and virtuous man, in interring in a handsome manner their parents, act according to a proper rule.'

Xu reported this reply to Mencius, who said, 'Does Yi really think a man loves his brother’s child only as much as a neighbour’s infant? The only point worth accepting in that statement is this: if a crawling infant risks falling into a well, the infant is not at fault. Moreover, Heaven brings creatures into being with one root, but Yi gives them two roots. This is the source of his error. In the earliest times, some people did not bury their parents. When their parents died, they carried the bodies away and threw them into a drainage channel. Later, passing by, they saw foxes and wildcats eating the bodies, and flies and gnats biting them. Sweat broke out on their foreheads, and they looked away, unable to bear the sight. They were not sweating because of what other people thought. The feelings in their hearts showed in their faces and eyes. They immediately went home, returned with baskets and spades, and covered the bodies with earth. If covering the bodies in this way was indeed right, you can see why a devoted son and a virtuous man give their parents a dignified burial. They are following a proper rule.'

The disciple Xu informed Yi of what Mencius had said. Yi was thoughtful for a short time, and then said, 'He has instructed me.'

The disciple Xu told Yi what Mencius had said. Yi thought for a moment, then said, 'Mencius has taught me.'