Duke Wen of Teng

Chen Dai said to Mencius, 'In not going to wait upon any of the princes, you seem to me to be standing on a small point. If now you were once to wait upon them, the result might be so great that you would make one of them sovereign, or, if smaller, that you would make one of them chief of all the other princes. Moreover, the History says, "By bending only one cubit, you make eight cubits straight." It appears to me like a thing which might be done.'

Chen Dai said to Mencius, 'By refusing to visit any of the princes, you seem to be insisting on a minor point. If you visited them just once, you might achieve so much that you could make one of them sovereign. Or, with a smaller success, you could make one of them leader of all the other princes. Moreover, the History says, "By bending just one cubit, you straighten eight cubits." Visiting them seems to me like something worth doing.'

Mencius said, 'Formerly, the duke Jing of Qi, once when he was hunting, called his forester to him by a flag. The forester would not come, and the duke was going to kill him. With reference to this incident, Confucius said, "The determined officer never forgets that his end may be in a ditch or a stream; the brave officer never forgets that he may lose his head." What was it in the forester that Confucius thus approved? He approved his not going to the duke, when summoned by the article which was not appropriate to him. If one go to see the princes without waiting to be invited, what can be thought of him? Moreover, that sentence, "By bending only one cubit, you make eight cubits straight," is spoken with reference to the gain that may be got. If gain be the object, then, if it can be got by bending eight cubits to make one cubit straight, may we likewise do that? Formerly, the officer Zhao Jian made Wang Liang act as charioteer for his favourite Xi, when, in the course of a whole day, they did not get a single bird. The favourite Xi reported this result, saying, "He is the poorest charioteer in the world." Some one told this to Wang Liang, who said, "I beg leave to try again." By dint of pressing, this was accorded to him, when in one morning they got ten birds. The favourite, reporting this result, said, "He is the best charioteer in the world." Jian said, "I will make him always drive your chariot for you." When he told Wang Liang so, however, Liang refused, saying, "I drove for him, strictly observing the proper rules for driving, and in the whole day he did not get one bird. I drove for him so as deceitfully to intercept the birds, and in one morning he got ten. It is said in the Book of Poetry, 'There is no failure in the management of their horses; The arrows are discharged surely, like the blows of an axe.' I am not accustomed to drive for a mean man. I beg leave to decline the office." Thus this charioteer even was ashamed to bend improperly to the will of such an archer. Though, by bending to it, they would have caught birds and animals sufficient to form a hill, he would not do so. If I were to bend my principles and follow those princes, of what kind would my conduct be? And you are wrong. Never has a man who has bent himself been able to make others straight.'

Mencius said, 'Once, while duke Jing of Qi was hunting, he summoned his forester with a flag. The forester would not come, and the duke was going to kill him. Speaking of this incident, Confucius said, "The resolute officer never forgets that he may end up dead in a ditch or stream. The brave officer never forgets that he may lose his head." What did Confucius approve of in the forester? He approved of his refusal to come when summoned with a signal inappropriate to his position. If someone visits princes without waiting to be invited, what can we think of him? Moreover, the saying, "By bending only one cubit, you make eight cubits straight," refers to the benefit gained. If gain is the goal, may we also bend eight cubits to straighten one, if doing so brings gain? Once, the officer Zhao Jian had Wang Liang drive a chariot for his favorite, Xi. In a whole day, they did not catch a single bird. Xi reported the result, saying, "He is the worst charioteer in the world." Someone told Wang Liang, who said, "Please let me try again." After much urging, Wang Liang was allowed another attempt. In one morning, they caught ten birds. Xi reported the result, saying, "He is the best charioteer in the world." Jian said, "I will have him drive your chariot for you from now on." But when Jian told Wang Liang, Liang refused, saying, "I drove for him strictly according to the proper rules. In the whole day, he did not catch one bird. Then I drove so as to intercept the birds by deception. In one morning, he caught ten. The Book of Poetry says, 'They manage their horses without fault. Their arrows strike surely, like the blows of an axe.' I am not used to driving for an unprincipled man. Please let me decline the position." So even this charioteer was ashamed to compromise his standards to satisfy such an archer. Even if compromising would have brought them enough birds and animals to form a hill, he would not do so. If I compromised my principles and followed those princes, what kind of conduct would that be? And you are wrong. No one who has bent his own principles has ever been able to straighten those of others.'

Jing Chun said to Mencius, 'Are not Gong Sun Yan and Zhang Yi really great men? Let them once be angry, and all the princes are afraid. Let them live quietly, and the flames of trouble are extinguished throughout the kingdom.'

Jing Chun said to Mencius, 'Aren’t Gong Sun Yan and Zhang Yi truly great men? If they become angry, all the princes are afraid. If they live quietly, the fires of trouble die out throughout the kingdom.'

Mencius said, 'How can such men be great men? Have you not read the Ritual Usages? "At the capping of a young man, his father admonishes him. At the marrying away of a young woman, her mother admonishes her, accompanying her to the door on her leaving, and cautioning her with these words, 'You are going to your home. You must be respectful; you must be careful. Do not disobey your husband.'" Thus, to look upon compliance as their correct course is the rule for women. To dwell in the wide house of the world, to stand in the correct seat of the world, and to walk in the great path of the world; when he obtains his desire for office, to practise his principles for the good of the people; and when that desire is disappointed, to practise them alone; to be above the power of riches and honours to make dissipated, of poverty and mean condition to make swerve from principle, and of power and force to make bend - these characteristics constitute the great man.'

Mencius said, 'How can such men be great men? Have you not read the Ritual Usages? "When a young man receives his cap at his coming-of-age ceremony, his father gives him advice. When a young woman marries, her mother gives her advice and accompanies her to the door as she leaves. Her mother cautions her with these words, 'You are going to your home. You must be respectful. You must be careful. Do not disobey your husband.'" Thus, treating obedience as the right course is the rule for women. 'A great man lives in the world's vast house, takes his rightful place, and walks the world's great path. When he gains the public office he desires, he puts his principles into practice for the people's good. When he fails to gain office, he practices his principles on his own. Wealth and honors cannot corrupt him. Poverty and low status cannot turn him away from his principles. Power and force cannot make him yield. These qualities make a great man.'

Zhou Xiao asked Mencius, saying, 'Did superior men of old time take office?'

Zhou Xiao asked Mencius, 'Did virtuous men in ancient times hold public office?'

Mencius replied, 'They did. The Record says, "If Confucius was three months without being employed by some ruler, he looked anxious and unhappy. When he passed from the boundary of a State, he was sure to carry with him his proper gift of introduction." Gong Ming Yi said, "Among the ancients, if an officer was three months unemployed by a ruler, he was condoled with."'

Mencius replied, 'They did. The Record says, "If Confucius went three months without employment by a ruler, he looked anxious and unhappy. Whenever he crossed a State's border, he always carried the proper gift for a formal introduction." Gong Ming Yi said, "In ancient times, if an officer went three months without employment by a ruler, people offered him their sympathy."'

Xiao said, 'Did not this condoling, on being three months unemployed by a ruler, show a too great urgency?'

Xiao said, 'Didn't offering condolences after three months without a position under a ruler show too much urgency?'

Mencius answered, 'The loss of his place to an officer is like the loss of his State to a prince. It is said in the Book of Rites, "A prince ploughs himself, and is assisted by the people, to supply the millet for sacrifice. His wife keeps silkworms, and unwinds their cocoons, to make the garments for sacrifice." If the victims be not perfect, the millet not pure, and the dress not complete, he does not presume to sacrifice. "And the scholar who, out of office, has no holy field, in the same way, does not sacrifice. The victims for slaughter, the vessels, and the garments, not being all complete, he does not presume to sacrifice, and then neither may he dare to feel happy." Is there not here sufficient ground also for condolence?'

Mencius answered, 'For an official, losing his position is like a prince losing his State. The Book of Rites says, "A prince ploughs the land himself, helped by the people, to provide millet for sacrifices. His wife raises silkworms and unwinds their cocoons to make the ceremonial garments." If the sacrificial animals are not flawless, the millet not pure, or the garments incomplete, he dares not offer sacrifices. "In the same way, a scholar without office who has no land set aside for sacrifices does not offer sacrifices. Unless the sacrificial animals, vessels, and garments are all ready, he dares not offer sacrifices. Then he must not dare to feel happy either." Is this not also reason enough to offer sympathy?'

Xiao again asked, 'What was the meaning of Confucius's always carrying his proper gift of introduction with him, when he passed over the boundaries of the State where he had been?'

Xiao asked again, 'Why did Confucius always carry the proper gift for introducing himself when leaving a State?'

'An officer's being in office,' was the reply, 'is like the ploughing of a husbandman. Does a husbandman part with his plough, because he goes from one State to another?'

'A public official holding office,' came the reply, 'is like a farmer ploughing his fields. Does a farmer give up his plough because he moves from one state to another?'

Xiao pursued, 'The kingdom of Jin is one, as well as others, of official employments, but I have not heard of anyone being thus earnest about being in office. If there should be this urge why does a superior man make any difficulty about taking it?'

Xiao continued, 'The kingdom of Jin, like other kingdoms, has official positions. But I have never heard of anyone being so eager to hold office. If a man of high character feels this urge, why does he hesitate to take office?'

Mencius answered, 'When a son is born, what is desired for him is that he may have a wife; when a daughter is born, what is desired for her is that she may have a husband. This feeling of the parents is possessed by all men. If the young people, without waiting for the orders of their parents, and the arrangements of the go-betweens, shall bore holes to steal a sight of each other, or get over the wall to be with each other, then their parents and all other people will despise them. The ancients did indeed always desire to be in office, but they also hated being so by any improper way. To seek office by an improper way is of a class with young people's boring holes.'

Mencius answered, 'When a son is born, his parents hope he will have a wife. When a daughter is born, her parents hope she will have a husband. All people share this parental feeling. But suppose young people do not wait for their parents' instructions and the matchmakers' arrangements. If they bore holes to peek at each other or climb over walls to meet, everyone will despise them. Their parents will despise them too. People in ancient times did indeed always want to hold office. But they also hated gaining office through improper means. Seeking office through improper means is like young people boring holes to peek at each other.'

Peng Geng asked Mencius, saying, 'Is it not an extravagant procedure to go from one prince to another and live upon them, followed by several tens of carriages, and attended by several hundred men?'

Peng Geng asked Mencius, 'Isn't it extravagant to travel from one prince to another and live at their expense? You have dozens of carriages following you and several hundred men attending you.'

Mencius replied, 'If there be not a proper ground for taking it, a single bamboo-cup of rice may not be received from a man. If there be such a proper ground, then Shun's receiving the kingdom from Yao is not to be considered excessive. Do you think it was excessive?'

Mencius replied, 'Without a proper reason, you must not accept even a single bamboo cup of rice from someone. If there is a proper reason, then even Shun's acceptance of the kingdom from Yao should not be considered excessive. Do you think accepting the kingdom was excessive?'

Geng said, 'No. But for a scholar performing no service to receive his support notwithstanding is improper.'

Geng said, 'No. But a scholar who performs no service should not receive support.'

Mencius answered, 'If you do not have an intercommunication of the productions of labour, and an interchange of men's services, so that one from his overplus may supply the deficiency of another, then husbandmen will have a superfluity of grain, and women will have a superfluity of cloth. If you have such an interchange, carpenters and carriage-wrights may all get their food from you. Here now is a man, who, at home, is filial, and abroad, respectful to his elders; who watches over the principles of the ancient kings, awaiting the rise of future learners - and yet you will refuse to support him. How is it that you give honour to the carpenter and carriage-wright, and slight him who practises benevolence and righteousness?'

Mencius answered, 'Suppose you do not exchange goods and services so that one person's surplus can meet another's needs. Then farmers will have more grain than they need, and women will have more cloth than they need. If you do exchange goods and services, carpenters and carriage makers may all get their food from you. Now consider a man who honors his parents at home and respects his elders outside the home. He preserves the teachings of the ancient kings, waiting for future students to come forward. Yet you refuse to support him. Why do you honor carpenters and carriage makers but slight a man who practices kindness and righteousness?'

Peng Geng said, 'The aim of the carpenter and carriagewright is by their trades to seek for a living. Is it also the aim of the superior man in his practice of principles thereby to seek for a living?'

Peng Geng said, 'Carpenters and carriage makers aim to earn a living through their trades. Does the superior man also aim to earn a living by putting his principles into practice?'

'What have you to do,' returned Mencius, 'with his purpose? He is of service to you. He deserves to be supported, and should be supported. And let me ask - Do you remunerate a man's intention, or do you remunerate his service.'

'What does his purpose have to do with you?' Mencius replied. 'He provides you with a service. He deserves your support, and you should support him. And let me ask: Do you pay a man for his intention, or for his service?'

To this Kang replied, 'I remunerate his intention.'

Kang replied, 'I reward him for his intention.'

Mencius said, 'There is a man here, who breaks your tiles, and draws unsightly figures on your walls - his purpose may be thereby to seek for his living, but will you indeed remunerate him?'

Mencius said, 'Here is a man who breaks your tiles and draws ugly pictures on your walls. He may be trying to earn a living by doing so, but would you really pay him?'

'No,' said Geng.

'No,' Geng said.

Mencius then concluded, 'That being the case, it is not the purpose which you remunerate, but the work done.'

Mencius then concluded, 'In that case, you reward not the intention, but the work done.'

Wan Zhang asked Mencius, saying, 'Sung is a small State. Its ruler is now setting about to practise the true royal government, and Qi and Chu hate and attack him. What in this case is to be done?'

Wan Zhang asked Mencius, 'Sung is a small state. Its ruler is now beginning to govern as a true king should, and Qi and Chu hate and attack him. What should be done in this situation?'

Mencius replied, 'When Tang dwelt in Bo, he adjoined to the State of Ge, the chief of which was living in a dissolute state and neglecting his proper sacrifices. Tang sent messengers to inquire why he did not sacrifice. He replied, "I have no means of supplying the necessary victims." On this, Tang caused oxen and sheep to be sent to him, but he ate them, and still continued not to sacrifice. Tang again sent messengers to ask him the same question as before, when he replied, "I have no means of obtaining the necessary millet." On this, Tang sent the mass of the people of Bo to go and till the ground for him, while the old and feeble carried their food to them. The chief of Ge led his people to intercept those who were thus charged with wine, cooked rice, millet, and paddy, and took their stores from them, while they killed those who refused to give them up. There was a boy who had some millet and flesh for the labourers, who was thus slain and robbed. What is said in the Book of History, "The chief of Ge behaved as an enemy to the provision-carriers," has reference to this. Because of his murder of this boy, Tang proceeded to punish him. All within the four seas said, "It is not because he desires the riches of the kingdom, but to avenge a common man and woman." When Tang began his work of executing justice, he commenced with Ge, and though he made eleven punitive expeditions, he had not an enemy in the kingdom. When he pursued his work in the east, the rude tribes in the west murmured. So did those on the north, when he was engaged in the south. Their cry was "Why does he make us last." Thus, the people's longing for him was like their longing for rain in a time of great drought. The frequenters of the markets stopped not. Those engaged in weeding in the fields made no change in their operations. While he punished their rulers, he consoled the people. His progress was like the falling of opportune rain, and the people were delighted. It is said in the Book of History, "We have waited for our prince. When our prince comes, we may escape from the punishments under which we suffer." There being some who would not become the subjects of Zhou, king Wu proceeded to punish them on the east. He gave tranquillity to their people, who welcomed him with baskets full of their black and yellow silks, saying "From henceforth we shall serve the sovereign of our dynasty of Zhou, that we may be made happy by him." So they joined themselves, as subjects, to the great city of Zhou. Thus, the men of station of Shang took baskets full of black and yellow silks to meet the men of station of Zhou, and the lower classes of the one met those of the other with baskets of rice and vessels of congee. Wu saved the people from the midst of fire and water, seizing only their oppressors, and destroying them.' In the Great Declaration it is said, "My power shall be put forth, and, invading the territories of Shang, I will seize the oppressor. I will put him to death to punish him - so shall the greatness of my work appear, more glorious than that of Tang." Song is not, as you say, practising true royal government, and so forth. If it were practising royal government, all within the four seas would be lifting up their heads, and looking for its prince, wishing to have him for their sovereign. Great as Qi and Chu are, what would there be to fear from them?'

Mencius replied, 'When Tang lived in Bo, his territory bordered the State of Ge. Ge’s chief lived a life of excess and neglected the sacrifices he was supposed to offer. Tang sent messengers to ask why he did not offer sacrifices. The chief replied, "I have no way to obtain the animals needed for sacrifice." So Tang sent him oxen and sheep. But the chief ate them and still offered no sacrifices. Tang again sent messengers to ask the same question. The chief replied, "I have no way to obtain the millet needed for sacrifice." So Tang sent the people of Bo in large numbers to farm the chief’s land. The old and weak carried food to the workers. The chief of Ge led his people to intercept those carrying wine, cooked rice, millet, and unhusked rice. They seized the supplies and killed anyone who refused to hand them over. One boy carrying millet and meat for the workers was killed and robbed in this way. The Book of History refers to this when it says, "The chief of Ge treated the food carriers as enemies." Because the chief had murdered this boy, Tang set out to punish him. Everyone within the four seas said, "He does not want the kingdom’s wealth. He wants to avenge an ordinary man and woman." When Tang began carrying out justice, he started with Ge. Although he made eleven military campaigns to punish rulers, he had no enemies in the kingdom. When he campaigned in the east, the uncivilized tribes in the west complained. Those in the north also complained when he campaigned in the south. They cried, "Why does he leave us until last?" The people longed for him as they longed for rain during a great drought. People kept going to the markets. Those weeding the fields continued their work as before. While he punished their rulers, he comforted the people. His advance was like rain arriving at the right time, and the people rejoiced. The Book of History says, "We have waited for our prince. When our prince comes, we may escape the punishments we suffer." Some people would not become subjects of Zhou, so king Wu went east to punish them. He brought peace to their people, who welcomed him with baskets full of black and yellow silks. They said, "From now on, we shall serve the ruler of our dynasty of Zhou, so he may bring us happiness." So they became subjects of the great city of Zhou. Thus, the leading men of Shang brought baskets full of black and yellow silks to meet the leading men of Zhou. The common people of Shang met the common people of Zhou with baskets of rice and bowls of rice porridge. Wu rescued the people from fire and flood, seizing and destroying only their oppressors.' The Great Declaration says, "I will use my power and invade the lands of Shang to seize the oppressor. I will put him to death as punishment. In this way, the greatness of my work will become clear, more glorious than Tang’s." 'Song is not, as you say, practising true royal government, and so on. If Song were practising royal government, everyone within the four seas would raise their heads and look for its prince. They would wish to have him as their ruler. Great as Qi and Chu are, what would there be to fear from them?'

Mencius said to Dai Bu Sheng, 'I see that you are desiring your king to be virtuous, and will plainly tell you how he may be made so. Suppose that there is a great officer of Chu here, who wishes his son to learn the speech of Qi. Will he in that case employ a man of Qi as his tutor, or a man of Chu?'

Mencius said to Dai Bu Sheng, 'I see that you want your king to be virtuous. I will tell you plainly how he can become virtuous. Suppose a high-ranking official from Chu is here and wants his son to learn the language of Qi. Would he hire a man from Qi as his son's tutor, or a man from Chu?'

'He will employ a man of Qi to teach him,' said Bu Sheng.

'He will hire a man from Qi to teach him,' said Bu Sheng.

Mencius went on, 'If but one man of Qi be teaching him, and there be a multitude of men of Chu continually shouting out about him, although his father beat him every day, wishing him to learn the speech of Qi, it will be impossible for him to do so. But in the same way, if he were to be taken and placed for several years in Zhuang or Yue, though his father should beat him, wishing him to speak the language of Chu, it would be impossible for him to do so. You supposed that Xue Ju Zhou was a scholar of virtue, and you have got him placed in attendance on the king. Suppose that all in attendance on the king, old and young, high and low, were Xue Ju Zhous, whom would the king have to do evil with? And suppose that all in attendance on the king, old and young, high and low, are not Xue Ju Zhous, whom will the king gave to do good with? What can one Xue Ju Zhou do alone for the king of Song?'

Mencius continued, 'Suppose just one man from Qi teaches him, while many men from Chu constantly shout around him. Even if his father beats him every day to make him learn the language of Qi, he cannot learn it. But suppose instead he is taken to Zhuang or Yue and stays there for several years. Then, even if his father beats him to make him speak the language of Chu, he cannot do so. You believed Xue Ju Zhou was a virtuous scholar, and you had him appointed to serve the king. Suppose everyone serving the king, old and young, high and low, were like Xue Ju Zhou. Who would the king have to join him in doing evil? And suppose no one serving the king, old and young, high and low, were like Xue Ju Zhou. Who would the king have to join him in doing good? What can one Xue Ju Zhou do alone for the king of Song?'

Gong Sun Chou asked Mencius, saying, 'What is the point of righteousness involved in your not going to see the princes?'

Gong Sun Chou asked Mencius, 'What moral principle guides your decision not to visit the princes?'

Mencius replied, 'Among the ancients, if one had not seen a minister in a State, he did not go to see the sovereign. Duan Gan Mu leaped over his wall to avoid the prince. Xie Liu shut his door, and would not admit the prince. These two, however, carried their scrupulosity to excess. When a prince is urgent, it is not improper to see him. Yang Huo wished to get Confucius to go to see him, but disliked doing so by any want of propriety. As it is the rule, therefore, that when a great officer sends a gift to a scholar, if the latter be not at home to receive it, he must go to the officer's to pay his respects, Yang Huo watched when Confucius was out, and sent him a roasted pig. Confucius, in his turn, watched when Huo was out, and went to pay his respects to him. At that time, Yang Huo had taken the initiative - how could Confucius decline going to see him? Zengzi said, "They who shrug up their shoulders, and laugh in a flattering way, toil harder than the summer labourer in the fields." Zi Lu said, "There are those who talk with people with whom they have no great community of feeling. If you look at their countenances, they are full of blushes. I do not desire to know such persons." By considering these remarks, the spirit which the superior man nourishes may be known.'

Mencius replied, 'In ancient times, anyone who had not met a minister in a state would not visit its ruler. Duan Gan Mu jumped over his wall to avoid the prince. Xie Liu shut his door and refused to let the prince in. These two, however, took their concern for proper conduct too far. When a prince insists on a meeting, it is not improper to see him. Yang Huo wanted Confucius to visit him, but did not want to bring this about improperly. According to custom, when a high official sends a scholar a gift, the scholar must receive it in person. If the scholar is not home, he must visit the official to pay his respects. So Yang Huo waited until Confucius was out and sent him a roasted pig. Confucius, in turn, waited until Huo was out and went to pay his respects. Since Yang Huo had taken the first step, how could Confucius refuse to visit him? Zengzi said, "People who hunch their shoulders and laugh to flatter others work harder than a summer field worker." Zi Lu said, "Some people talk with others whose feelings they hardly share. If you look at their faces, they are flushed with embarrassment. I do not wish to know such people." By reflecting on these remarks, we may understand the spirit that a person of noble character cultivates.'

Dai Ying Zhi said to Mencius, 'I am not able at present and immediately to do with the levying of a tithe only, and abolishing the duties charged at the passes and in the markets. With your leave I will lighten, however, both the tax and the duties, until next year, and will then make an end of them. What do you think of such a course?'

Dai Ying Zhi said to Mencius, 'I cannot immediately limit taxation to a tithe and abolish duties at the passes and markets. With your permission, however, I will reduce both the tax and the duties until next year. Then I will abolish them. What do you think of this plan?'

Mencius said, 'Here is a man, who every day appropriates some of his neighbour's strayed fowls. Some one says to him, "Such is not the way of a good man;" and he replies, "With your leave I will diminish my appropriations, and will take only one fowl a month, until next year, when I will make an end of the practice." If you know that the thing is unrighteous, then use all despatch in putting an end to it - why wait till next year?'

Mencius said, 'Here is a man who takes some of his neighbour's chickens every day after they stray. Someone says to him, "That is not how a good man behaves." He replies, "With your permission, I will take fewer chickens, only one a month until next year. Then I will stop altogether." If you know that taking the chickens is wrong, stop as quickly as possible. Why wait until next year?'

The disciple Gong Du said to Mencius, 'Master, the people beyond our school all speak of you as being fond of disputing. I venture to ask whether it be so.'

The disciple Gong Du said to Mencius, 'Master, people outside our school all say you enjoy debating. May I ask whether you do?'

Mencius replied, 'Indeed, I am not fond of disputing, but I am compelled to do it. A long time has elapsed since this world of men received its being, and there has been along its history now a period of good order, and now a period of confusion. In the time of Yao, the waters, flowing out of their channels, inundated the Middle Kingdom. Snakes and dragons occupied it, and the people had no place where they could settle themselves. In the low grounds they made nests for themselves on the trees or raised platforms, and in the high grounds they made caves. It is said in the Book of History, "The waters in their wild course warned me." Those "waters in their wild course" were the waters of the great inundation. Shun employed Yu to reduce the waters to order. Yu dug open their obstructed channels, and conducted them to the sea. He drove away the snakes and dragons, and forced them into the grassy marshes. On this, the waters pursued their course through the country, even the waters of the Jiang, the Huai, the He, and the Han, and the dangers and obstructions which they had occasioned were removed. The birds and beasts which had injured the people also disappeared, and after this men found the plains available for them, and occupied them.

Mencius replied, 'Indeed, I do not enjoy arguing, but I am forced to do so. A long time has passed since the human world began. Throughout its history, periods of order have alternated with periods of chaos. In the time of Yao, the waters overflowed their channels and flooded the Middle Kingdom. Snakes and dragons occupied the land, and the people had nowhere to settle. In low-lying areas, people built nests in trees or on raised platforms. On higher ground, they made caves. The Book of History says, "The waters in their wild course warned me." Those "waters in their wild course" were the waters of the great flood. Shun put Yu in charge of bringing the waters under control. Yu cleared the blocked channels and directed the waters to the sea. He drove away the snakes and dragons, forcing them into the grassy marshes. Then the waters flowed through the country, including the waters of the Jiang, the Huai, the He, and the Han. The dangers and obstacles caused by the waters were removed. The birds and beasts that had harmed the people also disappeared. After this, people found the plains fit to live on and settled there.

'After the death of Yao and Shun, the principles that mark sages fell into decay. Oppressive sovereigns arose one after another, who pulled down houses to make ponds and lakes, so that the people knew not where they could rest in quiet; they threw fields out of cultivation to form gardens and parks, so that the people could not get clothes and food. Afterwards, corrupt speakings and oppressive deeds became more rife; gardens and parks, ponds and lakes, thickets and marshes became more numerous, and birds and beasts swarmed. By the time of the tyrant Zhou, the kingdom was again in a state of great confusion. Zhou Gong assisted king Wu, and destroyed Zhou. He smote Yan, and after three years put its sovereign to death. He drove Fei Lian to a corner by the sea, and slew him. The States which he extinguished amounted to fifty. He drove far away also the tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, and elephants - and all the people was greatly delighted. It is said in the Book of History, "Great and splendid were the plans of king Wen! Greatly were they carried out by the energy of king Wu! They are for the assistance and instruction of us who are of an after day. They are all in principle correct, and deficient in nothing."

'After the deaths of Yao and Shun, the principles of the sages fell into decline. Oppressive rulers rose one after another. They tore down houses to make ponds and lakes, so the people had nowhere to live in peace. They took fields out of cultivation to create gardens and parks, so the people could not get clothing and food. Later, corrupt speech and oppressive acts became more common. Gardens and parks, ponds and lakes, thickets and marshes grew more numerous, and birds and beasts swarmed. By the time of the tyrant Zhou, the kingdom was once again in great turmoil. Zhou Gong helped king Wu destroy Zhou. He attacked Yan and, after three years, put its ruler to death. He drove Fei Lian into a corner by the sea and killed him. He wiped out fifty states. He also drove the tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, and elephants far away, and all the people were greatly delighted. The Book of History says, "How great and splendid were the plans of king Wen! How fully king Wu carried them out through his energy! These plans offer help and guidance to us who live in later times. All these plans are sound in principle and lack nothing."'

'Again the world fell into decay, and principles faded away. Perverse speakings and oppressive deeds waxed rife again. There were instances of ministers who murdered their sovereigns, and of sons who murdered their fathers. Confucius was afraid, and made the "Spring and Autumn." What the "Spring and Autumn" contains are matters proper to the sovereign. On this account Confucius said, "Yes! It is the Spring and Autumn which will make men know me, and it is the Spring and Autumn which will make men condemn me."

'Once again, the world fell into decline, and moral principles faded away. Twisted words and oppressive acts became widespread again. Some ministers murdered their rulers, and some sons murdered their fathers. Confucius was afraid, so he wrote the "Spring and Autumn." The "Spring and Autumn" deals with matters that are the ruler's responsibility. For this reason, Confucius said, "Yes! The Spring and Autumn will make people understand me, and the Spring and Autumn will make people condemn me."

'Once more, sage sovereigns cease to arise, and the princes of the States give the reins to their lusts. Unemployed scholars indulge in unreasonable discussions. The words of Yang Zhu and Mo Di fill the country. If you listen to people's discourses throughout it, you will find that they have adopted the views either of Yang or of Mo. Now, Yang's principle is "each one for himself," which does not acknowledge the claims of the sovereign. Mo's principle is "to love all equally," which does not acknowledge the peculiar affection due to a father. But to acknowledge neither king nor father is to be in the state of a beast. Gong Meng Yi said, "In their kitchens, there is fat meat. In their stables, there are fat horses. But their people have the look of hunger, and on the wilds there are those who have died of famine. This is leading on beasts to devour men." If the principles of Yang and Mo be not stopped, and the principles of Confucius not set forth, then those perverse speakings will delude the people, and stop up the path of benevolence and righteousness. When benevolence and righteousness are stopped up, beasts will be led on to devour men, and men will devour one another. I am alarmed by these things, and address myself to the defence of the doctrines of the former sages, and to oppose Yang and Mo. I drive away their licentious expressions, so that such perverse speakers may not be able to show themselves. Their delusions spring up in men's minds, and do injury to their practice of affairs. Shown in their practice of affairs, they are pernicious to their government. When sages shall rise up again, they will not change my words.

'Once again, wise rulers no longer arise, and the princes of the States give free rein to their desires. Scholars without official positions indulge in unreasonable debates. The teachings of Yang Zhu and Mo Di fill the country. Listen to people's discussions throughout the country, and you will find they follow either Yang or Mo. Now, Yang's principle is "each one for himself," which denies the ruler's rightful claims. Mo's principle is "to love all equally," which denies the special affection owed to a father. But to recognize neither king nor father is to live like a beast. Gong Meng Yi said, "In their kitchens, there is rich meat. In their stables, there are well-fed horses. But their people look hungry, and out in the countryside lie people who have died of famine. This is leading beasts to devour people." If Yang's and Mo's principles are not stopped, and Confucius's principles are not taught, those twisted teachings will mislead people. Those teachings will block the path of benevolence and righteousness. When the path of benevolence and righteousness is blocked, beasts will be led to devour people. And people will devour one another. These things alarm me, so I devote myself to defending the teachings of the ancient sages and opposing Yang and Mo. I reject their unrestrained statements so that those who spread such twisted teachings cannot come forward. Their false ideas take root in people's minds and harm the way people conduct their affairs. When these ideas shape people's actions, they harm government. When sages arise again, they will not change my words.'

'In former times, Yu repressed the vast waters of the inundation, and the country was reduced to order. Zhou Gong's achievements extended even to the barbarous tribes of the east and north, and he drove away all ferocious animals, and the people enjoyed repose. Confucius completed the "Spring and Autumn," and rebellious ministers and villainous sons were struck with terror. It is said in the Book of Poetry, "He smote the barbarians of the west and the north; He punished Jing and Shu; And no one dared to resist us." These father-deniers and king-deniers would have been smitten by Zhou Gong. I also wish to rectify men's hearts, and to put an end to those perverse doctrines, to oppose their one-sided actions and banish away their licentious expressions - and thus to carry on the work of the three sages. Do I do so because I am fond of disputing? I am compelled to do it. Whoever is able to oppose Yang and Mo is a disciple of the sages.'

'Long ago, Yu brought the great floodwaters under control, and order was restored to the country. Zhou Gong's achievements reached even the barbarian tribes of the east and north. He drove away all fierce animals, and the people lived in peace. Confucius completed the "Spring and Autumn," and rebellious ministers and wicked sons were terrified. The Book of Poetry says, "He struck down the barbarians of the west and the north. He punished Jing and Shu. And no one dared to resist us." Zhou Gong would have struck down these people who denied the authority of fathers and kings. I too want to set people's hearts right and put an end to those misguided teachings. I want to oppose their one-sided actions and silence their unrestrained words, thus carrying on the work of the three sages. Do I do this because I enjoy arguing? I have no choice. Anyone who can oppose Yang and Mo is a disciple of the sages.'

Kuang Zhang said to Mencius, 'Is not Chen Zhong a man of true self-denying purity? He was living in Wu Ling, and for three days was without food, till he could neither hear nor see. Over a well there grew a plum-tree, the fruit of which had been more than half eaten by worms. He crawled to it, and tried to eat some of the fruit, when, after swallowing three mouthfuls, he recovered his sight and hearing.'

Kuang Zhang said to Mencius, 'Isn't Chen Zhong a man of true purity and self-denial? He was living in Wu Ling and went without food for three days, until he could neither hear nor see. A plum tree grew over a well, and worms had eaten more than half of its fruit. He crawled to the tree and tried to eat some of the fruit. After swallowing three mouthfuls, he regained his sight and hearing.'

Mencius replied, 'Among the scholars of Qi, I must regard Zhong as the thumb among the fingers. But still, where is the self-denying purity he pretends to? To carry out the principles which he holds, one must become an earthworm, for so only can it be done. Now, an earthworm eats the dry mould above, and drinks the yellow spring below. Was the house in which Zhong dwells built by a Bo Yi? or was it built by a robber like Zhi? Was the millet which he eats planted by a Bo Yi? or was it planted by a robber like Zhi? These are things which cannot be known.'

Mencius replied, 'Among the scholars of Qi, I must rank Zhong as the thumb among the fingers. But where is the self-denying purity he claims to have? To live by his principles, a person would have to become an earthworm. Only an earthworm could do so. An earthworm eats the dry soil above and drinks the water from the underground springs below. Was Zhong’s house built by someone like Bo Yi? Or was it built by a robber like Zhi? Was the millet Zhong eats planted by someone like Bo Yi? Or was it planted by a robber like Zhi? There is no way to know the answers.'

'But,' said Zhang, 'what does that matter? He himself weaves sandals of hemp, and his wife twists and dresses threads of hemp to sell or exchange them.'

'But,' Zhang said, 'why does that matter? He weaves hemp sandals himself, and his wife twists and prepares hemp threads to sell or trade.'

Mencius rejoined, 'Zhong belongs to an ancient and noble family of Qi. His elder brother Dai received from Gai a revenue of 10,000 zhong, but he considered his brother's emolument to be unrighteous, and would not eat of it, and in the same way he considered his brother's house to be unrighteous, and would not dwell in it. Avoiding his brother and leaving his mother, he went and dwelt in Wu Ling. One day afterwards, he returned to their house, when it happened that some one sent his brother a present of a live goose. He, knitting his eyebrows, said, "What are you going to use that cackling thing for?" By-and-by his mother killed the goose, and gave him some of it to eat. Just then his brother came into the house, and said, "It is the flesh of that cackling thing," upon which he went out and vomited it. Thus, what his mother gave him he would not eat, but what his wife gives him he eats. He will not dwell in his brother's house, but he dwells in Wu Ling. How can he in such circumstances complete the style of life which he professes? With such principles as Zhong holds, a man must be an earthworm, and then he can carry them out.'

Mencius replied, 'Zhong comes from an ancient and noble family of Qi. His elder brother Dai received an income of 10,000 zhong from Gai. But Zhong considered his brother's income unjust and would not eat food bought with it. Likewise, he considered his brother's house unjustly obtained and would not live there. He avoided his brother, left his mother, and went to live in Wu Ling. Later, Zhong returned to their house one day, when someone happened to send his brother a live goose. Zhong frowned and said, "What are you going to use that cackling thing for?" Soon afterward, his mother killed the goose and gave him some to eat. Just then, his brother came into the house and said, "That is the meat of that cackling thing." Zhong then went outside and vomited it up. So he would not eat what his mother gave him, but he eats what his wife gives him. He will not live in his brother's house, but he lives in Wu Ling. Under these circumstances, how can he fully live the way he claims to? To carry out principles like Zhong's, a man would have to be an earthworm.'