THERE be none of the affections, which have been noted to fascinate or bewitch, but love and envy. They both have vehement wishes; they frame themselves readily into imaginations and suggestions; and they come easily into the eye, especially upon the present of the objects; which are the points that conduce to fascination, if any such thing there be. We see likewise, the Scripture calleth envy an evil eye; and the astrologers, call the evil influences of the stars, evil aspects; so that still there seemeth to be acknowledged, in the act of envy, an ejaculation or irradiation of the eye. Nay, some have been so curious, as to note, that the times when the stroke or percussion of an envious eye doth most hurt, are when the party envied is beheld in glory or triumph; for that sets an edge upon envy: and besides, at such times the spirits of the person envied, do come forth most into the outward parts, and so meet the blow.
Love and envy are the only emotions said to cast a spell or bewitch. Both involve intense desires. They readily turn into imaginings and suggestions, and easily show in the eyes, especially when their objects are present. These are the qualities that contribute to bewitchment, if any such thing exists. Scripture likewise calls envy an evil eye. Astrologers call the harmful influences of the stars evil aspects. So people seem consistently to recognize that envy sends out a force or rays through the eyes. Indeed, some have examined this so closely that they claim an envious eye strikes hardest at certain times. This happens when the envied person is seen in glory or triumph, because that sharpens envy. Besides, at such times, the envied person's vital spirits flow most strongly toward the body's surface. There they meet the blow.
But leaving these curiosities (though not unworthy to be thought on, in fit place), we will handle, what persons are apt to envy others; what persons are most subject to be envied themselves; and what is the difference between public and private envy.
But let us set these curious questions aside, though they deserve consideration in the right context. We will discuss which people tend to envy others, and which are most likely to be envied themselves. We will also consider the difference between public and private envy.
A man that hath no virtue in himself, ever envieth virtue in others. For men's minds, will either feed upon their own good, or upon others' evil; and who wanteth the one, will prey upon the other; and whoso is out of hope, to attain to another's virtue, will seek to come at even hand, by depressing another's fortune.
A person with no virtue always envies virtue in others. People's minds feed either on their own goodness or on the misfortunes of others. Those who lack the first will prey on the second. Anyone who has no hope of matching another's virtue will try to get even by undermining that person's fortunes.
A man that is busy, and inquisitive, is commonly envious. For to know much of other men's matters, cannot be because all that ado may concern his own estate; therefore it must needs be, that he taketh a kind of play-pleasure, in looking upon the fortunes of others. Neither can he, that mindeth but his own business, find much matter for envy. For envy is a gadding passion, and walketh the streets, and doth not keep home: Non est curiosus, quin idem sit malevolus.
A meddlesome, inquisitive man is usually envious. He cannot take so much interest in other people’s affairs because they all concern his own well-being. So he must take a kind of idle pleasure in watching other people’s fortunes. Nor can a man who minds only his own business find much cause for envy. For envy is a wandering passion. It roams the streets and does not stay home. No one is nosy without also being malicious.
Men of noble birth, are noted to be envious towards new men, when they rise. For the distance is altered, and it is like a deceit of the eye, that when others come on, they think themselves, go back.
People of noble birth are known to envy newcomers as they rise in status. The gap between them narrows, creating a kind of optical illusion. As others move forward, they think they themselves are moving backward.
Deformed persons, and eunuchs, and old men, and bastards, are envious. For he that cannot possibly mend his own case, will do what he can, to impair another's; except these defects light upon a very brave, and heroical nature, which thinketh to make his natural wants part of his honor; in that it should be said, that an eunuch, or a lame man, did such great matters; affecting the honor of a miracle; as it was in Narses the eunuch, and Agesilaus and Tamberlanes, that were lame men.
People with physical deformities, eunuchs, old men, and children born outside marriage are envious. Anyone who cannot possibly improve his own condition will do what he can to worsen someone else’s. The exception is when these disadvantages fall to someone with a very brave and heroic nature. Such a person seeks to make his natural shortcomings part of his honor. He wants people to say that a eunuch or a lame man accomplished such great things. He seeks the glory of a miracle. This was true of Narses the eunuch, and of Agesilaus and Tamerlane, who were lame.
The same is the case of men, that rise after calamities and misfortunes. For they are as men fallen out with the times; and think other men's harms, a redemption of their own sufferings.
The same is true of people who rise after disasters and misfortunes. They feel at odds with the times. They see other people's suffering as compensation for their own.
They that desire to excel in too many matters, out of levity and vain glory, are ever envious. For they cannot want work; it being impossible, but many, in some one of those things, should surpass them. Which was the character of Adrian the Emperor; that mortally envied poets, and painters, and artificers, in works wherein he had a vein to excel.
People who want to excel in too many fields out of fickleness and vanity are always envious. They can never run out of reasons for envy. Inevitably, many others will surpass them in one or another of those fields. Emperor Hadrian was like this. He bitterly envied poets, painters, and craftsmen whose work lay in fields where he had some talent.
Lastly, near kinsfolks, and fellows in office, and those that have been bred together, are more apt to envy their equals, when they are raised. For it doth upbraid unto them their own fortunes, and pointeth at them, and cometh oftener into their remembrance, and incurreth likewise more into the note of others; and envy ever redoubleth from speech and fame. Cain's envy was the more vile and malignant, towards his brother Abel, because when his sacrifice was better accepted, there was no body to look on. Thus much for those, that are apt to envy.
Finally, close relatives, colleagues, and those raised together are more likely to envy their equals when those equals rise. Their success makes their own circumstances seem worse and draws attention to them. It comes to mind more often and attracts more notice from others. Envy always grows stronger through talk and reputation. Cain’s envy toward his brother Abel was all the more vile and malicious because, when Abel’s sacrifice was more favorably received, no one was watching. So much for those who are prone to envy.
Concerning those that are more or less subject to envy: First, persons of eminent virtue, when they are advanced, are less envied. For their fortune seemeth, but due unto them; and no man envieth the payment of a debt, but rewards and liberality rather. Again, envy is ever joined with the comparing of a man's self; and where there is no comparison, no envy; and therefore kings are not envied, but by kings. Nevertheless it is to be noted, that unworthy persons are most envied, at their first coming in, and afterwards overcome it better; whereas contrariwise, persons of worth and merit are most envied, when their fortune continueth long. For by that time, though their virtue be the same, yet it hath not the same lustre; for fresh men grow up that darken it.
As for who is more or less subject to envy, first, people of outstanding virtue face less envy when promoted. Their good fortune seems deserved. No one envies the payment of a debt, but rather rewards and generous gifts. Also, envy always involves comparing ourselves with others. Where there is no comparison, there is no envy. Therefore, kings are envied only by other kings. Still, undeserving people face the most envy when they first rise to power or position. Afterward, they overcome it more easily. By contrast, people of worth and merit face the most envy when their good fortune lasts a long time. By then, although their virtue remains the same, it no longer shines as brightly. New people rise and overshadow it.
Persons of noble blood, are less envied in their rising. For it seemeth but right done to their birth. Besides, there seemeth not much added to their fortune; and envy is as the sunbeams, that beat hotter upon a bank, or steep rising ground, than upon a flat. And for the same reason, those that are advanced by degrees, are less envied than those that are advanced suddenly and per saltum.
People of noble birth are less envied as they rise. Their rise seems only what their birth deserves. Besides, it seems to add little to their fortune. Envy is like sunlight, which beats hotter on a bank or steep slope than on level ground. For the same reason, those who rise gradually are less envied than those who rise suddenly, in a single leap.
Those that have joined with their honor great travels, cares, or perils, are less subject to envy. For men think that they earn their honors hardly, and pity them sometimes; and pity ever healeth envy. Wherefore you shall observe, that the more deep and sober sort of politic persons, in their greatness, are ever bemoaning themselves, what a life they lead; chanting a quanta patimur! Not that they feel it so, but only to abate the edge of envy. But this is to be understood, of business that is laid upon men, and not such, as they call unto themselves. For nothing increaseth envy more, than an unnecessary and ambitious engrossing of business. And nothing doth extinguish envy more, than for a great person to preserve all other inferior officers, in their full lights and pre-eminences of their places. For by that means, there be so many screens between him and envy.
People whose honors come with great hardship, worries, or dangers are less subject to envy. Others think they have worked hard for their honors and sometimes pity them. And pity always cures envy. So you will notice that shrewder, more cautious political figures in high positions are always complaining about their lives. They keep crying, “How much we suffer!” They do not truly feel this way, but only want to dull the edge of envy. But this applies to duties imposed on people, not those they take on themselves. For nothing increases envy more than unnecessarily and ambitiously taking too much business into one’s own hands. And nothing does more to extinguish envy than a powerful person preserving all subordinate officials’ full prominence and authority. In this way, those officials form so many shields between that person and envy.
Above all, those are most subject to envy, which carry the greatness of their fortunes, in an insolent and proud manner; being never well, but while they are showing how great they are, either by outward pomp, or by triumphing over all opposition or competition; whereas wise men will rather do sacrifice to envy, in suffering themselves sometimes of purpose to be crossed, and overborne in things that do not much concern them. Notwithstanding, so much is true, that the carriage of greatness, in a plain and open manner (so it be without arrogancy and vain glory) doth draw less envy, than if it be in a more crafty and cunning fashion. For in that course, a man doth but disavow fortune; and seemeth to be conscious of his own want in worth; and doth but teach others, to envy him.
Above all, those who flaunt their wealth and status with arrogance and pride are most subject to envy. They are never content unless they are showing how great they are. They do this through outward splendor or by triumphing over all opposition or competition. Wise people, by contrast, will make concessions to envy. They sometimes deliberately let others oppose them and get their way in matters that mean little to them. Still, openly and plainly displaying wealth and status draws less envy than doing so in a crafty, cunning way. This is true as long as the display is free of arrogance and vanity. By acting cunningly, people merely deny their good fortune and seem aware that they lack merit. They only teach others to envy them.
Lastly, to conclude this part; as we said in the beginning, that the act of envy had somewhat in it of witchcraft, so there is no other cure of envy, but the cure of witchcraft; and that is, to remove the lot (as they call it) and to lay it upon another. For which purpose, the wiser sort of great persons, bring in ever upon the stage somebody upon whom to derive the envy, that would come upon themselves; sometimes upon ministers and servants; sometimes upon colleagues and associates; and the like; and for that turn there are never wanting, some persons of violent and undertaking natures, who, so they may have power and business, will take it at any cost.
Finally, to conclude this part, we said at the beginning that envy has something of witchcraft in it. So there is no cure for envy except the cure for witchcraft. That is to remove the curse, as they call it, and place it on someone else. For this purpose, wiser powerful people always bring someone onto the stage to attract the envy aimed at themselves. Sometimes they use ministers and servants, sometimes colleagues and associates, and others like them. For this role, there is never any shortage of aggressive, ambitious people ready to take on bold ventures. As long as they can have power and a role in affairs, they will accept it at any cost.
Now, to speak of public envy. There is yet some good in public envy, whereas in private, there is none. For public envy, is as an ostracism, that eclipseth men, when they grow too great. And therefore it is a bridle also to great ones, to keep them within bounds.
Now, let us turn to public envy. Public envy has some good in it, while private envy has none. Public envy acts like ostracism, diminishing people when they become too powerful. It also keeps the powerful in check, holding them within bounds.
This envy, being in the Latin word invidia, goeth in the modern language, by the name of discontentment; of which we shall speak, in handling sedition. It is a disease, in a state, like to infection. For as infection spreadeth upon that which is sound, and tainteth it; so when envy is gotten once into a state, it traduceth even the best actions thereof, and turneth them into an ill odor. And therefore there is little won, by intermingling of plausible actions. For that doth argue but a weakness, and fear of envy, which hurteth so much the more, as it is likewise usual in infections; which if you fear them, you call them upon you.
This envy, called invidia in Latin, is now known as discontent. We shall discuss it when we consider rebellion. It is a disease in a state, much like an infection. Just as infection spreads to healthy tissue and corrupts it, envy spreads through a state. Once established, it discredits even the state's best actions and gives them a bad reputation. So little is gained by mixing in actions intended to win approval. This only shows weakness and fear of envy, making its harm even greater. The same is commonly true of infections. If you fear them, you bring them upon yourself.
This public envy, seemeth to beat chiefly upon principal officers or ministers, rather than upon kings, and estates themselves. But this is a sure rule, that if the envy upon the minister be great, when the cause of it in him is small; or if the envy be general, in a manner upon all the ministers of an estate; then the envy (though hidden) is truly upon the state itself. And so much of public envy or discontentment, and the difference thereof from private envy, which was handled in the first place.
Public envy seems to fall mainly on leading officials or ministers, rather than on kings and states themselves. But this is a reliable rule. Envy of a minister may be great, even when he has given little cause for it. Or envy may extend to nearly all the ministers of a state. In either case, the envy is really directed at the state itself, though this remains hidden. So much for public envy or discontent, and how it differs from private envy, which was discussed first.
We will add this in general, touching the affection of envy; that of all other affections, it is the most importune and continual. For of other affections, there is occasion given, but now and then; and therefore it was well said, Invidia festos dies non agit: for it is ever working upon some or other. And it is also noted, that love and envy do make a man pine, which other affections do not, because they are not so continual. It is also the vilest affection, and the most depraved; for which cause it is the proper attribute of the devil, who is called, the envious man, that soweth tares amongst the wheat by night; as it always cometh to pass, that envy worketh subtilly, and in the dark, and to the prejudice of good things, such as is the wheat.
We will add this general observation about envy. Of all emotions, it is the most persistent and relentless. Other emotions are stirred only now and then. So it was well said, “Envy takes no holidays.” It is always at work against someone or other. It has also been noted that love and envy make a person waste away. Other emotions do not, because they are not so constant. Envy is also the vilest and most corrupt emotion. For this reason, it is the defining trait of the devil. He is called the envious man who sows weeds among the wheat at night. For envy always works secretly and in the dark, harming good things, such as the wheat.