Chapter 1

He who proposes to make that inquiry which is necessary concerning what government is best, ought first to determine what manner of living is most eligible; for while this remains uncertain it will also be equally uncertain what government is best: for, provided no unexpected accidents interfere, it is highly probable, that those who enjoy the best government will live the most happily according to their circumstances; he ought, therefore, first to know what manner of life is most desirable for all; and afterwards whether this life is the same to the man and the citizen, or different. As I imagine that I have already sufficiently shown what sort of life is best in my popular discourses on that subject, I think I may very properly repeat the same here; as most certainly no one ever called in question the propriety of one of the divisions; namely, that as what is good, relative to man, may be divided into three sorts, what is external, what appertains to the body, and what to the soul, it is evident that all these must conspire to make a man happy: for no one would say that a man was happy who had no fortitude, no temperance, no justice, no prudence; but was afraid of the flies that flew round him: nor would abstain from the meanest theft if he was either hungry or dry, or would murder his dearest friend for a farthing; and also was in every particular as wanting in his understanding as an infant or an idiot. These truths are so evident that all must agree to them; though some may dispute about the quantity and the degree: for they may think, that a very little virtue is sufficient for happiness; but for riches, property, power, honour, and all such things, they endeavour to increase them without bounds: but to such we reply, that it is easy to prove from what experience teaches us in these cases, that these external goods produce not virtue, but virtue them. As to a happy life, whether it is to be found in pleasure or virtue or both, certain it is, that those whose morals are most pure, and whose understandings are best cultivated, will enjoy more of it, although their fortune is but moderate than those do who own an exuberance of wealth, are deficient in those; and this utility any one who reflects may easily convince himself of; for whatsoever is external has its boundary, as a machine, and whatsoever is useful in its excess is either necessarily hurtful, or at best useless to the possessor; but every good quality of the soul the higher it is in degree, so much the more useful it is, if it is permitted on this subject to use the word useful as well as noble. It is also very evident, that the accidents of each subject take place of each other, as the subjects themselves, of which we allow they are accidents, differ from each other in value; so that if the soul is more noble than any outward possession, as the body, both in itself and with respect to us, it must be admitted of course that the best accidents of each must follow the same analogy. Besides, it is for the sake of the soul that these things are desirable; and it is on this account that wise men should desire them, not the soul for them. Let us therefore be well assured, that every one enjoys as much happiness as he possesses virtue and wisdom, and acts according to their dictates; since for this we have the example of GOD Himself, who is completely happy, not from any external good, but in Himself, and because such is His nature. For good fortune is something different from happiness, as every good which depends not on the mind is owing to chance or fortune; but it is not from fortune that any one is wise and just: hence it follows, that that city is happiest which is the best and acts best: for no one can do well who acts not well; nor can the deeds either of man or city be praiseworthy without virtue and wisdom; for whatsoever is just, or wise, or prudent in a man, the same things are just, wise, and prudent in a city. __

Anyone who wants to investigate the best form of government must first determine the most desirable way of life. While that question remains unsettled, the best form of government will also remain uncertain. Unless unexpected events interfere, people under the best government are very likely to live as happily as their circumstances allow. So we must first establish what way of life is most desirable for everyone. Then we must ask whether the best life is the same for an individual and a citizen, or different. I believe I have already explained the best way of life sufficiently in my writings for a general audience. So I think it is entirely appropriate to repeat the same arguments here. Certainly, no one has ever questioned this division of human goods into three kinds: external goods, bodily goods, and goods of the soul. Clearly, all three must work together to make a person happy. No one would call a person happy who lacked courage, self-control, justice, and practical wisdom. Such a person would be frightened by flies buzzing around him. If hungry or thirsty, he would not refrain from even the pettiest theft. He would murder his dearest friend for a tiny sum. And his understanding would be as deficient in every respect as that of an infant or someone without intellectual capacity. These truths are so clear that everyone must agree with them. Yet some may dispute how much of each good is needed. They may think very little virtue is enough for happiness. But they try to increase wealth, property, power, honor, and similar goods without limit. We reply that experience makes the answer easy to prove. External goods do not produce virtue. Rather, virtue produces external goods. Whether a happy life consists in pleasure, virtue, or both, one thing is certain. Those with the purest character and best-developed understanding enjoy more happiness, even with only moderate wealth. Those with abundant wealth but deficient character and understanding enjoy less. Anyone who reflects can easily see why. Every external good has a limit to its usefulness, like a tool. Beyond that limit, an excess is necessarily harmful, or at best useless, to its owner. But the greater any good quality of the soul becomes, the more useful it is. That is, if we may describe such qualities as useful as well as noble. It is also very clear that the qualities of different things rank in value as the things themselves do. The soul is nobler than any external possession or the body, both in itself and in relation to us. If we accept that, we must also accept that their best qualities rank in the same way. Besides, external and bodily goods are desirable for the soul’s sake. Wise people should therefore desire those goods for the soul, not the soul for those goods. Let us therefore be certain of this: everyone’s happiness matches the virtue and wisdom they possess and put into practice. For this we have the example of GOD himself, who is completely happy, not because of any external good, but in himself, because that is his nature. Good fortune is different from happiness. Every good that does not depend on the mind comes from chance or fortune. But no one becomes wise and just through fortune. It follows that the happiest city is the best city and the one that acts best. For no one can fare well without acting well. Neither an individual’s deeds nor a city’s deeds can deserve praise without virtue and wisdom. Whatever is just, wise, or prudent in an individual is also just, wise, or prudent in a city. __

Thus much by way of introduction; for I could not but just touch upon this subject, though I could not go through a complete investigation of it, as it properly belongs to another question: let us at present suppose so much, that a man's happiest life, both as an individual and as a citizen, is a life of virtue, accompanied with those enjoyments which virtue usually procures. If [1324a] there are any who are not convinced by what I have said, their doubts shall be answered hereafter, at present we shall proceed according to our intended method.

That is enough by way of introduction. I had to touch briefly on this subject, though I could not examine it fully here. A full examination properly belongs to another question. For now, let us assume that a man's happiest life, both as an individual and as a citizen, is virtuous. Such a life includes the pleasures that virtue usually brings. If [1324a] anyone remains unconvinced by what I have said, I will answer their doubts later. For now, we will proceed according to our planned method.