Chapter 4

There are four kinds of democracies. The best is that which is composed of those first in order, as we have already said, and this also is the most ancient of any. I call that the first which every one would place so, was he to divide the people; for the best part of these are the husbandmen. We see, then, that a democracy may be framed where the majority live by tillage or pasturage; for, as their property is but small, they will not be at leisure perpetually to hold public assemblies, but will be continually employed in following their own business, not having otherwise the means of living; nor will they be desirous of what another enjoys, but will rather like to follow their own business than meddle with state affairs and accept the offices of government, which will be attended with no great profit; for the major part of mankind are rather desirous of riches than honour (a proof of this is, that they submitted to the tyrannies in ancient times, and do now submit to the oligarchies, if no one hinders them in their usual occupations, or deprives them of their property; for some of them soon get rich, others are removed from poverty); besides, their having the right of election and calling their magistrates to account for their conduct when they come out of office, will satisfy their desire of honours, if any of them entertain that passion: for in some states, though the commonalty have not the right of electing the magistrates, yet it is vested in part of that body chosen to represent them: and it is sufficient for the people at large to possess the deliberative power: and this ought to be considered as a species of democracy; such was that formerly at Mantinsea: for which reason it is proper for the democracy we have been now treating of to have a power (and it has been usual for them to have it) of censuring their magistrates when out of office, and sitting in judgment upon all causes: but that the chief magistrates should be elected, and according to a certain census, which should vary with the rank of their office, or else not by a census, but according to their abilities for their respective appointments. A state thus constituted must be well constituted; for the magistracies will be always filled with the best men with the approbation of the people; who will not envy their superiors: and these and the nobles should be content with this part in the administration; for they will not be governed by their inferiors. They will be also careful to use their power with moderation, as there are others to whom full power is delegated to censure their conduct; for it is very serviceable to the state to have them dependent upon others, and not to be permitted to do whatsoever they choose; for with such a liberty there would be no check to that evil particle there is in every one: therefore it is [1319a] necessary and most for the benefit of the state that the offices thereof should be filled by the principal persons in it, whose characters are unblemished, and that the people are not oppressed. It is now evident that this is the best species of democracy, and on what account; because the people are such and have such powers as they ought to have. To establish a democracy of husbandmen some of those laws which were observed in many ancient states are universally useful; as, for instance, on no account to permit any one to possess more than a certain quantity of land, or within a certain distance from the city. Formerly also, in some states, no one was allowed to sell their original lot of land. They also mention a law of one Oxylus, which forbade any one to add to their patrimony by usury. We ought also to follow the law of the Aphutaeans, as useful to direct us in this particular we are now speaking of; for they having but very little ground, while they were a numerous people, and at the same time were all husbandmen, did not include all their lands within the census, but divided them in such a manner that, according to the census, the poor had more power than the rich. Next to the commonalty of husbandmen is one of shepherds and herdsmen; for they have many things in common with them, and, by their way of life, are excellently qualified to make good soldiers, stout in body, and able to continue in the open air all night. The generality of the people of whom other democracies are composed are much worse than these; for their lives are wretched nor have they any business with virtue in anything they do; these are your mechanics, your exchange-men, and hired servants; as all these sorts of men frequent the exchange and the citadel, they can readily attend the public assembly; whereas the husbandmen, being more dispersed in the country, cannot so easily meet together; nor are they equally desirous of doing it with these others! When a country happens to be so situated that a great part of the land lies at a distance from the city, there it is easy to establish a good democracy or a free state for the people in general will be obliged to live in the country; so that it will be necessary in such a democracy, though there may be an exchange-mob at hand, never to allow a legal assembly without the inhabitants of the country attend. We have shown in what manner the first and best democracy ought to be established, and it will be equally evident as to the rest, for from these we [1319b] should proceed as a guide, and always separate the meanest of the people from the rest. But the last and worst, which gives to every citizen without distinction a share in every part of the administration, is what few citizens can bear, nor is it easy to preserve for any long time, unless well supported by laws and manners. We have already noticed almost every cause that can destroy either this or any other state. Those who have taken the lead in such a democracy have endeavoured to support it, and make the people powerful by collecting together as many persons as they could and giving them their freedom, not only legitimately but naturally born, and also if either of their parents were citizens, that is to say, if either their father or mother; and this method is better suited to this state than any other: and thus the demagogues have usually managed. They ought, however, to take care, and do this no longer than the common people are superior to the nobles and those of the middle rank, and then stop; for, if they proceed still further, they will make the state disorderly, and the nobles will ill brook the power of the common people, and be full of resentment against it; which was the cause of an insurrection at Cyrene: for a little evil is overlooked, but when it becomes a great one it strikes the eye. It is, moreover, very-useful in such a state to do as Clisthenes did at Athens, when he was desirous of increasing the power of the people, and as those did who established the democracy in Cyrene; that is, to institute many tribes and fraternities, and to make the religious rites of private persons few, and those common; and every means is to be contrived to associate and blend the people together as much as possible; and that all former customs be broken through. Moreover, whatsoever is practised in a tyranny seems adapted to a democracy of this species; as, for instance, the licentiousness of the slaves, the women, and the children; for this to a certain degree is useful in such a state; and also to overlook every one's living as they choose; for many will support such a government: for it is more agreeable to many to live without any control than as prudence would direct.

There are four kinds of democracy. The best consists of the people ranked first, as we have already said. This kind is also the oldest. By first, I mean the group everyone would rank first when dividing the people into classes: farmers. A democracy can therefore be formed where most people live by farming or raising livestock. Because these people own little property, they have no time to hold public assemblies constantly. Instead, they must keep working at their own business, since they have no other means of making a living. Nor will they desire what others have. They will prefer their own work to involvement in public affairs or government offices that offer little profit. Most people desire wealth more than honor. As evidence, people submitted to tyrannies in ancient times and submit to oligarchies now. They do so if no one interferes with their usual work or takes away their property. For some soon become rich, while others escape poverty. Besides, the right to elect officials and review their conduct after leaving office will satisfy any desire for honor. In some states, however, the common people do not have the right to elect officials. Instead, that right belongs to a group chosen from among them to represent them. It is enough for the people as a whole to have the power to deliberate on public affairs. This arrangement should be considered a kind of democracy. Such was the former government at Mantinsea. Therefore, the democracy we are discussing should have the power to review officials after they leave office. Democracies of this kind have usually held that power, along with the right to judge all legal cases. But the chief officials should be elected and meet a property qualification that varies with the rank of their office. Alternatively, they should be chosen without a property qualification, according to their abilities for their particular duties. A state organized this way must be well organized. The best men will always hold office with the people's approval, and the people will not envy their superiors. These men and the nobles should be content with their role in government, since their inferiors will not govern them. They will also take care to use their power moderately. Others have full authority to review their conduct. It greatly benefits the state to make officials answerable to others rather than let them do whatever they choose. Such freedom would leave the evil element in everyone unchecked. Therefore, it is [1319a] necessary and best for the state that its leading men hold office and have unblemished characters. The people must also remain free from oppression. It is now clear that this is the best kind of democracy, and why. The people have the character and powers they ought to have. Certain laws followed in many ancient states are useful everywhere for establishing a democracy of farmers. For example, no one should ever be allowed to own more than a certain amount of land. Nor should anyone own land within a certain distance of the city. Formerly, some states also forbade anyone to sell their original allotment of land. A law attributed to Oxylus is also mentioned. It forbade anyone to increase their inherited estate through lending at interest. We should also follow the law of the Aphutaeans, which offers useful guidance on this particular issue. They had very little land and a large population, yet all were farmers. They did not count all their land toward the property qualification. Instead, they divided it so that the property qualification gave the poor more power than the rich. Next after a population of farmers comes one of shepherds and herdsmen. They have much in common with farmers. Their way of life also makes them exceptionally well suited to military service. They are physically strong and can spend the whole night outdoors. Most people who make up other democracies are much worse than these. Their lives are miserable, and nothing they do has any connection with virtue. These are your craftsmen, your traders, and your hired workers. All these people regularly gather in the marketplace and the citadel, so they can readily attend the public assembly. Farmers, however, are more scattered across the countryside and cannot gather so easily. Nor are farmers as eager to gather as these other groups. Where much of a country's land lies far from the city, establishing a good democracy or constitutional government is easy. Most people will have to live in the countryside. Therefore, in such a democracy, no assembly should be legally valid unless the country people attend. This must hold even if a marketplace mob is close at hand. We have shown how the first and best democracy should be established. How to establish the others will be equally clear. For we [1319b] should use these principles as our guide, always separating the lowest class of people from the rest. But the last and worst democracy gives every citizen, without distinction, a share in every part of government. Few citizens can bear such a system. Nor is it easy to preserve for long unless laws and customs give it strong support. We have already noted almost every cause that can destroy this or any other state. Leaders in such democracies have tried to support the system and strengthen the people by gathering as many citizens as possible. They grant citizenship not only to those born within marriage but also to those born outside it. They also admit people with only one citizen parent, whether the father or the mother. This method suits this kind of state better than any other. Demagogues have usually acted this way. However, these leaders must take care to stop once the common people outnumber the nobles and the middle class. If they go further, they will throw the state into disorder. The nobles will resent the common people's power and find it hard to tolerate. This caused an uprising at Cyrene. A small evil is overlooked, but a large one attracts attention. In such a state, the example of Clisthenes at Athens is also very useful. He acted when he wanted to increase the people's power. Those who established democracy in Cyrene did the same. Their method was to create many tribes and fraternities and reduce private religious rites, making those rites communal. Every possible means should be used to bring the people together and mix them as thoroughly as possible. All former customs should be broken down. Moreover, whatever is practiced under tyranny seems suited to this kind of democracy. Examples include allowing slaves, women, and children to behave without restraint. To a certain extent, this freedom is useful in such a state. So is allowing everyone to live as they choose without interference. Many will support such a government. For many people find living without restraint more pleasant than living as sound judgment would direct.