Chapter 1

We have already shown what is the nature of the supreme council in the state, and wherein one may differ from another, and how the different magistrates should be regulated; and also the judicial department, and what is best suited to what state; and also to what causes both the destruction and preservation of governments are owing.

We have already explained the nature of the state's supreme council and how one council may differ from another. We have also explained how the various public offices should be organized. We have discussed the judicial system and what arrangements best suit each kind of state. We have also explained the causes of both the destruction and the preservation of governments.

As there are very many species of democracies, as well as of other states, it will not be amiss to consider at the same time anything which we may have omitted to mention concerning either of them, and to allot to each that mode of conduct which is peculiar to and advantageous for them; and also to inquire into the combinations of all these different modes of government which we [1317a] have mentioned; for as these are blended together the government is altered, as from an aristocracy to be an oligarchy, and from a free state to be a democracy. Now, I mean by those combinations of government (which I ought to examine into, but have not yet done), namely, whether the deliberative department and the election of magistrates is regulated in a manner correspondent to an oligarchy, or the judicial to an aristocracy, or the deliberative part only to an oligarchy, and the election of magistrates to an aristocracy, or whether, in any other manner, everything is not regulated according to the nature of the government. But we will first consider what particular sort of democracy is fitted to a particular city, and also what particular oligarchy to a particular people; and of other states, what is advantageous to what. It is also necessary to show clearly, not only which of these governments is best for a state, but also how it ought to be established there, and other things we will treat of briefly.

There are many kinds of democracy, as there are of other forms of government. So we should also consider anything we may have left out about these forms. We should identify the practices suited to each form and beneficial to it. We should also examine combinations of all the different forms of government we [1317a] have mentioned. For blending these forms changes the government, turning an aristocracy into an oligarchy, or a free state into a democracy. I should examine these combinations, but have not yet done so. By combinations, I mean arrangements such as these: deliberation and the election of magistrates follow oligarchic principles, or courts follow aristocratic principles. Or deliberation alone follows oligarchic principles, while the election of magistrates follows aristocratic principles. There may also be other arrangements in which not everything follows the principles of the form of government. But first we will consider what particular kind of democracy suits a particular city. We will also consider what particular oligarchy suits a particular people, and which other governments benefit which states. We must clearly explain not only which government is best for a state, but also how to establish that government. We will also briefly discuss other matters.

And first, we will speak of a democracy; and this will at the same time show clearly the nature of its opposite which some persons call an oligarchy; and in doing this we must examine into all the parts of a democracy, and everything that is connected therewith; for from the manner in which these are compounded together different species of democracies arise: and hence it is that they are more than one, and of various natures. Now, there are two causes which occasion there being so many democracies; one of which is that which we have already mentioned; namely, there being different sorts of people; for in one country the majority are husbandmen, in another mechanics, and hired servants; if the first of these is added to the second, and the third to both of them, the democracy will not only differ in the particular of better or worse, but in this, that it will be no longer the same government; the other is that which we will now speak of. The different things which are connected with democracies and seem to make part of these states, do, from their being joined to them, render them different from others: this attending a few, that more, and another all. It is necessary that he who would found any state which he may happen to approve of, or correct one, should be acquainted with all these particulars. All founders of states endeavour to comprehend within their own plan everything of nearly the same kind with it; but in doing this they err, in the manner I have already described in treating of the preservation and destruction of governments. I will now speak of these first principles and manners, and whatever else a democratical state requires.

First, we will discuss democracy. This discussion will also clarify the nature of its opposite, which some people call oligarchy. We must examine all the parts of a democracy and everything connected with it. Different combinations of these parts produce different kinds of democracy. That is why democracies are not all alike, but take several forms. There are two reasons for this variety. The first, already mentioned, is that there are different kinds of people. In one country, most people are farmers. In another, most are craftspeople and hired workers. If farmers are added to craftspeople, and hired workers to both, the democracy changes. The difference is not simply that the democracy becomes better or worse. It becomes a different kind of government. We will now discuss the second reason. Various features are associated with democracies and seem to form part of their organization. The inclusion of these features makes democracies differ from one another. One democracy has a few of these features, another has more, and another has all of them. Anyone wishing to establish a state they approve of, or reform an existing state, must understand all these details. All founders of states try to include in their plans everything that closely resembles their chosen form of government. But in doing so, they make a mistake. I have already explained this mistake in discussing how governments survive and how they are destroyed. I will now discuss these basic principles and practices, and everything else a democratic state requires.