Chapter 4

But seditions in government do not arise for little things, but from them; for their immediate cause is something of moment. Now, trifling quarrels are attended with the greatest consequences when they arise between persons of the first distinction in the state, as was the case with the Syracusians in a remote period; for a revolution in the government was brought about by a quarrel between two young men who were in office, upon a love affair; for one of them being absent, the other seduced his mistress; he in his turn, offended with this, persuaded his friend's wife to come and live with him; and upon this the whole city took part either with the one or the other, and the government was overturned: therefore every one at the beginning of such disputes ought to take care to avoid the consequences; and to smother up all quarrels which may happen to arise amongst those in power, for the mischief lies in the beginning; for the beginning is said to be half of the business, so that what was then but a little fault will be found afterwards to bear its full proportion to what follows. Moreover, disputes between men of note involve the whole city in their consequences; in Hestiaea, after the Median war: two brothers having a dispute about their paternal estate; he who was the poorer, from the other's having concealed part of the effects, and some money which his father had found, engaged the popular party on his side, while the other, who was rich, the men of fashion. And at Delphos, [1304a] a quarrel about a wedding was the beginning of all the seditions that afterwards arose amongst them; for the bridegroom, being terrified by some unlucky omen upon waiting upon the bride, went away without marrying her; which her relations resenting, contrived secretly to convey some sacred money into his pocket while he was sacrificing, and then killed him as an impious person. At Mitylene also, a dispute, which arose concerning a right of heritage, was the beginning of great evils, and a war with the Athenians, in which Paches took their city, for Timophanes, a man of fortune, leaving two daughters, Doxander, who was circumvented in procuring them in marriage for his two sons, began a sedition, and excited the Athenians to attack them, being the host of that state. There was also a dispute at Phocea, concerning a right of inheritance, between Mnasis, the father of Mnasis, and Euthucrates, the father of Onomarchus, which brought on the Phoceans the sacred war. The government too of Epidamnus was changed from a quarrel that arose from an intended marriage; for a certain man having contracted his daughter in marriage, the father of the young person to whom she was contracted, being archon, punishes him, upon which account he, resenting the affront, associated himself with those who were excluded from any share in the government, and brought about a revolution. A government may be changed either into an oligarchy, democracy, or a free state; when the magistrates, or any part of the city acquire great credit, or are increased in power, as the court of Areopagus at Athens, having procured great credit during the Median war, added firmness to their administration; and, on the other hand, the maritime force, composed of the commonalty, having gained the victory at Salamis, by their power at sea, got the lead in the state, and strengthened the popular party: and at Argos, the nobles, having gained great credit by the battle of Mantinea against the Lacedaemonians, endeavoured to dissolve the democracy. And at Syracuse, the victory in their war with the Athenians being owing to the common people, they changed their free state into a democracy: and at Chalcis, the people having taken off the tyrant Phocis, together with the nobles, immediately seized the government: and at Ambracia also the people, having expelled the tyrant Periander, with his party, placed the supreme power in themselves. And this in general ought to be known, that whosoever has been the occasion of a state being powerful, whether private persons, or magistrates, a certain tribe, or any particular part of the citizens, or the multitude, be they who they will, will be the cause of disputes in the state. For either some persons, who envy them the honours they have acquired, will begin to be seditious, or they, on account of the dignity they have acquired, will not be content with their former equality. A state is also liable to commotions when those parts of it which seem to be opposite to each other approach to an [1304b] equality, as the rich and the common people; so that the part which is between them both is either nothing at all, or too little to be noticed; for if one party is so much more powerful than the other, as to be evidently stronger, that other will not be willing to hazard the danger: for which reason those who are superior in excellence and virtue will never be the cause of seditions; for they will be too few for that purpose when compared to the many. In general, the beginning and the causes of seditions in all states are such as I have now described, and revolutions therein are brought about in two ways, either by violence or fraud: if by violence, either at first by compelling them to submit to the change when it is made. It may also be brought about by fraud in two different ways, either when the people, being at first deceived, willingly consent to an alteration in their government, and are afterwards obliged by force to abide by it: as, for instance, when the four hundred imposed upon the people by telling them that the king of Persia would supply them with money for the war against the Lacedaemonians; and after they had been guilty of this falsity, they endeavoured to keep possession of the supreme power; or when they are at first persuaded and afterwards consent to be governed: and by one of these methods which I have mentioned are all revolutions in governments brought about.

Political uprisings do not arise over small matters, but they do grow out of them. Their immediate cause is something important. Minor quarrels have the greatest consequences when they arise between the most prominent people in the state. This happened among the Syracusians long ago. A quarrel over a love affair between two young officials brought about a revolution in the government. While one was away, the other seduced his mistress. In retaliation, the offended man persuaded his friend's wife to live with him. The whole city then took one side or the other, and the government was overthrown. Everyone should therefore guard against the consequences when such disputes begin. They should settle any quarrels among those in power before the quarrels spread, because the trouble lies in the beginning. The beginning is said to be half the task. So what seemed a small mistake at first will later prove proportionate to the consequences. Moreover, disputes between prominent men draw the whole city into their consequences. This happened in Hestiaea after the Median war, when two brothers disputed their father's estate. One brother had become poorer because the other had hidden some property and money their father had found. The poorer brother won the support of the popular party. The wealthy brother gained the support of the upper classes. And at Delphos, [1304a] a quarrel over a wedding started all the political uprisings that followed there. The bridegroom was frightened by an unlucky omen when he came to meet the bride. He left without marrying her. Her relatives resented this insult. While he was offering a sacrifice, they secretly planted sacred money in his pocket. They then killed him as a man guilty of sacrilege. At Mitylene, too, an inheritance dispute began great troubles and a war with the Athenians, in which Paches captured the city. Timophanes, a wealthy man, left two daughters. Doxander had been thwarted in arranging marriages between these daughters and his two sons. So he started an uprising and urged the Athenians to attack Mitylene, since he was their city's host and representative. There was also an inheritance dispute at Phocea between Mnasis, the father of Mnasis, and Euthucrates, the father of Onomarchus. This dispute brought the sacred war upon the Phoceans. The government of Epidamnus also changed because of a quarrel over an intended marriage. A man had promised his daughter in marriage. The intended bridegroom's father, who was archon, punished the bride's father. Resenting the insult, the bride's father joined those excluded from government and brought about a revolution. A government may become an oligarchy, a democracy, or a free state when officials or some section of the city gain prestige or power. At Athens, for example, the court of Areopagus gained great prestige during the Median war. This strengthened its administration. On the other hand, the naval forces, drawn from the common people, won the victory at Salamis. Through their power at sea, they gained the leading position in the state and strengthened the popular party. At Argos, the nobles gained great prestige through the battle of Mantinea against the Lacedaemonians. They then tried to abolish the democracy. At Syracuse, the common people were responsible for the victory in the war against the Athenians. They therefore changed their free state into a democracy. At Chalcis, the people joined the nobles in killing the tyrant Phocis, then immediately seized control of the government. At Ambracia, too, the people expelled the tyrant Periander and his supporters, then took supreme power themselves. This general point should be understood: whoever makes a state powerful will become a cause of political conflict. They may be private individuals, officials, a particular tribe, a section of the citizens, or the people as a whole. Either others will envy the honors they have gained and begin an uprising, or the successful group will demand more. Because of their new standing, they will no longer be content with their former equality. A state is also vulnerable to unrest when its opposing groups become nearly [1304b] equal in strength. This applies, for example, to the rich and the common people. The group between them may be absent or too small to matter. For if one side is clearly much stronger, the other will not willingly risk a conflict. For this reason, those superior in excellence and virtue will never cause political uprisings. They will be too few compared with the many. In general, the beginnings and causes of political uprisings in all states are those I have described. Revolutions come about in two ways, through violence or deception. Violence may be used at the outset or to force people to accept the change once it has been made. Deception can also work in two ways. In the first, people are initially deceived into willingly accepting a change of government. They are then forced to live under it. For example, the four hundred deceived the people with a promise of Persian support. They said the king of Persia would provide money for the war against the Lacedaemonians. After telling this lie, they tried to retain supreme power. In the second, people are persuaded at first and afterward continue to consent to being governed. All revolutions in government come about through one of the methods I have described.