Chapter 3

The reason for there being many different sorts of governments is this, that each state consists of a great number of parts; for, in the first place, we see that all cities are made up of families: and again, of the multitude of these some must be rich, some poor, and others in the middle station; and that, both of the rich and poor, some will be used to arms, others not. We see also, that some of the common people are husbandmen, others attend the market, and others are artificers. There is also a difference between the nobles in their wealth, and the dignity in which they live: for instance, in the number of horses they breed; for this cannot be supported without a large fortune: for which reason, in former times, those cities whose strength consisted in horse became by that means oligarchies; and they used horse in their expeditions against the neighbouring cities; as the Eretrians the Chalcidians, the Magnetians, who lived near the river Meander, and many others in Asia. Moreover, besides the difference of fortune, there is that which arises from family and merit; or, if there are any other distinctions [1290a] which make part of the city, they have been already mentioned in treating of an aristocracy, for there we considered how many parts each city must necessarily be composed of; and sometimes each of these have a share in the government, sometimes a few, sometimes more.

There are many different forms of government because every state consists of many parts. First, we see that all cities are made up of families. Among these families, some must be rich, some poor, and others somewhere in between. Among both rich and poor, some will have military experience and others will not. We also see that some common people are farmers, others work in the marketplace, and others are craftspeople. Nobles also differ in wealth and in the grandeur of their lifestyles. One example is the number of horses they breed, since breeding horses requires a large fortune. For this reason, cities whose strength depended on cavalry became oligarchies in earlier times. These cities used cavalry in campaigns against neighboring cities. Examples include the Eretrians, the Chalcidians, the Magnetians living near the river Meander, and many others in Asia. Besides differences in wealth, there are differences in family background and merit. Any other distinctions [1290a] within a city have already been mentioned in the discussion of aristocracy. There we considered how many parts every city must contain. Sometimes all these parts share in government, sometimes only a few, and sometimes a larger number.

It is evident then, that there must be many forms of government, differing from each other in their particular constitution: for the parts of which they are composed each differ from the other. For government is the ordering of the magistracies of the state; and these the community share between themselves, either as they can attain them by force, or according to some common equality which there is amongst them, as poverty, wealth, or something which they both partake of. There must therefore necessarily be as many different forms of governments as there are different ranks in the society, arising from the superiority of some over others, and their different situations. And these seem chiefly to be two, as they say, of the winds: namely, the north and the south; and all the others are declinations from these. And thus in politics, there is the government of the many and the government of the few; or a democracy and an oligarchy: for an aristocracy may be considered as a species of oligarchy, as being also a government of the few; and what we call a free state may be considered as a democracy: as in the winds they consider the west as part of the north, and the east as part of the south: and thus it is in music, according to some, who say there are only two species of it, the Doric and the Phrygian, and all other species of composition they call after one of these names; and many people are accustomed to consider the nature of government in the same light; but it is both more convenient and more correspondent to truth to distinguish governments as I have done, into two species: one, of those which are established upon proper principles; of which there may be one or two sorts: the other, which includes all the different excesses of these; so that we may compare the best form of government to the most harmonious piece of music; the oligarchic and despotic to the more violent tunes; and the democratic to the soft and gentle airs.

Clearly, then, there must be many forms of government, each with a different structure. This is because the groups that make up each government differ from one another. Government is the arrangement of public offices in a state. The community divides these offices among its members, either according to their ability to seize them by force or on some shared basis of equality. That shared basis may be poverty, wealth, or something else the members have in common. So there must be as many forms of government as there are different ranks in society. These ranks arise from the superiority of some people over others and from their different circumstances. There seem to be two main forms, just as people say there are two main winds, north and south. All other winds are variations of these two. Similarly, in politics, there is government by the many and government by the few, or democracy and oligarchy. Aristocracy may be considered a kind of oligarchy, since aristocracy is also government by the few. What we call a free state may be considered a democracy. Similarly, people classify the west wind with the north wind, and the east wind with the south wind. Some people make the same distinction in music. They say there are only two kinds, Doric and Phrygian, and give all other kinds of composition one of these names. Many people are used to viewing forms of government in the same way. But the distinction I have made between two kinds of government is both more useful and closer to the truth. The first includes governments founded on sound principles, of which there may be one or two forms. The second includes all the different excessive departures from these forms. So we may compare the best form of government to the most harmonious piece of music. We may compare oligarchic and despotic governments to more violent tunes, and democratic governments to soft, gentle melodies.