Parts of Language

[Language in general includes the following parts:—Letter, Syllable, Connecting word, Noun, Verb, Inflexion or Case, Sentence or Phrase.

[Language in general has the following parts: letter, syllable, connecting word, noun, verb, inflection or case, sentence or phrase.

A Letter is an indivisible sound, yet not every such sound, but only one which can form part of a group of sounds. For even brutes utter indivisible sounds, none of which I call a letter. The sound I mean may be either a vowel, a semi-vowel, or a mute. A vowel is that which without impact of tongue or lip has an audible sound. A semi-vowel, that which with such impact has an audible sound, as S and R. A mute, that which with such impact has by itself no sound, but joined to a vowel sound becomes audible, as G and D. These are distinguished according to the form assumed by the mouth and the place where they are produced; according as they are aspirated or smooth, long or short; as they are acute, grave, or of an intermediate tone; which inquiry belongs in detail to the writers on metre.

A letter is an indivisible sound, but not just any indivisible sound. It must be able to form part of a group of sounds. Even animals make indivisible sounds, but I do not call any of these a letter. The kind of sound I mean may be a vowel, a semi-vowel, or a mute. A vowel makes an audible sound without contact from the tongue or lips. A semi-vowel makes an audible sound with such contact, as S and R do. A mute makes no sound on its own with such contact, but becomes audible when joined to a vowel sound. G and D are examples. These sounds are distinguished by the shape of the mouth and the place where they are produced. They are also distinguished by whether they are aspirated or smooth, long or short, and acute, grave, or of an intermediate tone. A detailed study of these differences belongs to writers on metre.

A Syllable is a non-significant sound, composed of a mute and a vowel: for GR without A is a syllable, as also with A,—GRA. But the investigation of these differences belongs also to metrical science.

A syllable is a sound without meaning, made up of a mute consonant and a vowel. For example, GR without A is a syllable, as is GRA, with A. But the study of these differences also belongs to the study of meter.

A Connecting word is a non-significant sound, which neither causes nor hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound; it may be placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence. Or, a non-significant sound, which out of several sounds, each of them significant, is capable of forming one significant sound,—as {alpha mu theta iota}, {pi epsilon rho iota}, and the like. Or, a non-significant sound, which marks the beginning, end, or division of a sentence; such, however, that it cannot correctly stand by itself at the beginning of a sentence, as {mu epsilon nu}, {eta tau omicron iota}, {delta epsilon}.

A connecting word is a sound without meaning that neither helps nor prevents several sounds from forming one meaningful sound. It may appear at either end or in the middle of a sentence. Or, a connecting word is a sound without meaning that can combine several sounds, each meaningful on its own, into one meaningful sound. Examples include {alpha mu theta iota}, {pi epsilon rho iota}, and similar words. Or, a connecting word is a sound without meaning that marks the beginning, end, or division of a sentence. But such a word cannot correctly stand alone at the beginning of a sentence. Examples include {mu epsilon nu}, {eta tau omicron iota}, and {delta epsilon}.

A Noun is a composite significant sound, not marking time, of which no part is in itself significant: for in double or compound words we do not employ the separate parts as if each were in itself significant. Thus in Theodorus, 'god-given,' the {delta omega rho omicron nu} or 'gift' is not in itself significant.

A noun is a meaningful sound made up of parts, but it does not indicate time. None of its parts is meaningful on its own. For in double or compound words, we do not use the separate parts as if each were meaningful on its own. Thus, in Theodorus, 'god-given,' the {delta omega rho omicron nu} or 'gift' is not meaningful on its own.

A Verb is a composite significant sound, marking time, in which, as in the noun, no part is in itself significant. For 'man,' or 'white' does not express the idea of 'when'; but 'he walks,' or 'he has walked' does connote time, present or past.

A verb is a sound made up of parts that conveys meaning and indicates time. As with a noun, none of its parts has meaning on its own. For example, 'man' and 'white' do not indicate when. But 'he walks' and 'he has walked' do indicate time, either present or past.

Inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb, and expresses either the relation 'of,' 'to,' or the like; or that of number, whether one or many, as 'man' or 'men '; or the modes or tones in actual delivery, e.g. a question or a command. 'Did he go?' and 'go' are verbal inflexions of this kind.

Inflection applies to both nouns and verbs. It can express relations such as 'of' or 'to'. It can also express number, whether singular or plural, as in 'man' or 'men'. Or it can express the manner or tone of speech, as in a question or a command. 'Did he go?' and 'go' are examples of this kind of verbal inflection.

A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant sound, some at least of whose parts are in themselves significant; for not every such group of words consists of verbs and nouns—'the definition of man,' for example—but it may dispense even with the verb. Still it will always have some significant part, as 'in walking,' or 'Cleon son of Cleon.' A sentence or phrase may form a unity in two ways,—either as signifying one thing, or as consisting of several parts linked together. Thus the Iliad is one by the linking together of parts, the definition of man by the unity of the thing signified.]

A sentence or phrase is a meaningful combination of sounds, at least some of whose parts are meaningful on their own. Not every such group of words contains both verbs and nouns. Take 'the definition of man,' for example. A sentence or phrase can even do without a verb. Still, it will always have some meaningful part, as in 'in walking,' or 'Cleon son of Cleon.' A sentence or phrase can form a unity in two ways. It can mean one thing, or it can consist of several linked parts. Thus the Iliad is one because its parts are linked together. The definition of man is one because the thing it means is one.]