Types of Words and Metaphor

Words are of two kinds, simple and double. By simple I mean those composed of non-significant elements, such as {gamma eta}. By double or compound, those composed either of a significant and non-significant element (though within the whole word no element is significant), or of elements that are both significant. A word may likewise be triple, quadruple, or multiple in form, like so many Massilian expressions, e.g. 'Hermo-caico-xanthus who prayed to Father Zeus>.'

Words are of two kinds: simple and double. Simple words are made up of elements that have no meaning on their own, such as {gamma eta}. Double or compound words are made up of either a meaningful element and a meaningless one, or two meaningful elements. In the first case, though, neither element has meaning within the whole word. A word may also have three, four, or more parts, like many Massilian expressions, such as 'Hermo-caico-xanthus who prayed to Father Zeus>.'

Every word is either current, or strange, or metaphorical, or ornamental, or newly-coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered.

Every word is either common, unfamiliar, metaphorical, ornamental, newly coined, lengthened, shortened, or altered.

By a current or proper word I mean one which is in general use among a people; by a strange word, one which is in use in another country. Plainly, therefore, the same word may be at once strange and current, but not in relation to the same people. The word {sigma iota gamma upsilon nu omicron nu}, 'lance,' is to the Cyprians a current term but to us a strange one.

By a current or proper word, I mean one in general use among a people. By a strange word, I mean one used in another country. Clearly, then, the same word may be both strange and current, but not for the same people. The word {sigma iota gamma upsilon nu omicron nu}, 'lance,' is a current term for Cyprians but a strange one for us.

Metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion. Thus from genus to species, as: 'There lies my ship'; for lying at anchor is a species of lying. From species to genus, as: 'Verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought'; for ten thousand is a species of large number, and is here used for a large number generally. From species to species, as: 'With blade of bronze drew away the life,' and 'Cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding bronze.' Here {alpha rho upsilon rho alpha iota}, 'to draw away,' is used for {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu}, 'to cleave,' and {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu} again for {alpha rho upsilon alpha iota},—each being a species of taking away. Analogy or proportion is when the second term is to the first as the fourth to the third. We may then use the fourth for the second, or the second for the fourth. Sometimes too we qualify the metaphor by adding the term to which the proper word is relative. Thus the cup is to Dionysus as the shield to Ares. The cup may, therefore, be called 'the shield of Dionysus,' and the shield 'the cup of Ares.' Or, again, as old age is to life, so is evening to day. Evening may therefore be called 'the old age of the day,' and old age, 'the evening of life,' or, in the phrase of Empedocles, 'life's setting sun.' For some of the terms of the proportion there is at times no word in existence; still the metaphor may be used. For instance, to scatter seed is called sowing: but the action of the sun in scattering his rays is nameless. Still this process bears to the sun the same relation as sowing to the seed. Hence the expression of the poet 'sowing the god-created light.' There is another way in which this kind of metaphor may be employed. We may apply an alien term, and then deny of that term one of its proper attributes; as if we were to call the shield, not 'the cup of Ares,' but 'the wineless cup.'

Metaphor applies a name that properly belongs to something else. The transfer may be from genus to species, from species to genus, from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion. An example of genus to species is: 'There lies my ship'. Lying at anchor is a kind of lying. An example of species to genus is: 'Truly, Odysseus has done ten thousand noble deeds'. Ten thousand is a kind of large number, and here it stands for a large number generally. Examples of species to species are: 'With a bronze blade, he drew away the life' and 'Cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding bronze'. Here {alpha rho upsilon rho alpha iota}, 'to draw away', is used for {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu}, 'to cleave'. In turn, {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu} is used for {alpha rho upsilon alpha iota}. Each is a kind of taking away. Analogy, or proportion, occurs when the second term is related to the first as the fourth is to the third. We may then use the fourth in place of the second, or the second in place of the fourth. Sometimes we also qualify the metaphor by adding the term to which the proper word is related. For example, the cup is to Dionysus as the shield is to Ares. The cup may therefore be called 'the shield of Dionysus', and the shield 'the cup of Ares'. Similarly, old age is to life as evening is to day. Evening may therefore be called 'the old age of the day'. Old age may be called 'the evening of life' or, in Empedocles' phrase, 'life's setting sun'. Sometimes there is no word for one of the terms in the proportion. Even so, the metaphor may be used. For example, scattering seed is called sowing. But there is no name for the sun's act of scattering its rays. Still, this act has the same relation to the sun as sowing has to the seed. Hence the poet's expression 'sowing the god-created light'. There is another way to use this kind of metaphor. We may apply a name that belongs to something else, then deny it one of its usual attributes. For example, we might call the shield not 'the cup of Ares', but 'the wineless cup'.

{An ornamental word...}

{A decorative word...}

A newly-coined word is one which has never been even in local use, but is adopted by the poet himself. Some such words there appear to be: as {epsilon rho nu upsilon gamma epsilon sigma}, 'sprouters,' for {kappa epsilon rho alpha tau alpha}, 'horns,' and {alpha rho eta tau eta rho}, 'supplicator,' for {iota epsilon rho epsilon upsilon sigma}, 'priest.'

A newly coined word is one that has never been used, even locally, but is adopted by the poet himself. There appear to be some such words. Examples include {epsilon rho nu upsilon gamma epsilon sigma}, 'sprouters,' for {kappa epsilon rho alpha tau alpha}, 'horns,' and {alpha rho eta tau eta rho}, 'supplicator,' for {iota epsilon rho epsilon upsilon sigma}, 'priest.'

A word is lengthened when its own vowel is exchanged for a longer one, or when a syllable is inserted. A word is contracted when some part of it is removed. Instances of lengthening are,—{pi omicron lambda eta omicron sigma} for {pi omicron lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and {Pi eta lambda eta iota alpha delta epsilon omega} for {Pi eta lambda epsilon iota delta omicron upsilon}: of contraction,—{kappa rho iota}, {delta omega}, and {omicron psi}, as in {mu iota alpha / gamma iota nu epsilon tau alpha iota / alpha mu phi omicron tau episilon rho omega nu / omicron psi}.

A word is lengthened when its vowel is replaced with a longer one or a syllable is added. A word is contracted when part of it is removed. Examples of lengthening are {pi omicron lambda eta omicron sigma} for {pi omicron lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and {Pi eta lambda eta iota alpha delta epsilon omega} for {Pi eta lambda epsilon iota delta omicron upsilon}. Examples of contraction are {kappa rho iota}, {delta omega}, and {omicron psi}, as in {mu iota alpha / gamma iota nu epsilon tau alpha iota / alpha mu phi omicron tau episilon rho omega nu / omicron psi}.

An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary form is left unchanged, and part is re-cast; as in {delta epsilon xi iota-tau epsilon rho omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha / mu alpha zeta omicron nu}, {delta epsilon xi iota tau epsilon rho omicron nu} is for {delta epsilon xi iota omicron nu}.

An altered word keeps part of its ordinary form and changes the rest. For example, in {delta epsilon xi iota-tau epsilon rho omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha / mu alpha zeta omicron nu}, {delta epsilon xi iota tau epsilon rho omicron nu} is used in place of {delta epsilon xi iota omicron nu}.

[Nouns in themselves are either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Masculine are such as end in {nu}, {rho}, {sigma}, or in some letter compounded with {sigma},—these being two, and {xi}. Feminine, such as end in vowels that are always long, namely {eta} and {omega}, and—of vowels that admit of lengthening—those in {alpha}. Thus the number of letters in which nouns masculine and feminine end is the same; for {psi} and {xi} are equivalent to endings in {sigma}. No noun ends in a mute or a vowel short by nature. Three only end in {iota},—{mu eta lambda iota}, {kappa omicron mu mu iota}, {pi epsilon pi epsilon rho iota}: five end in {upsilon}. Neuter nouns end in these two latter vowels; also in {nu} and {sigma}.]

[Nouns themselves are masculine, feminine, or neuter. Masculine nouns end in {nu}, {rho}, {sigma}, or a letter compounded with {sigma}. There are two such letters, and {xi}. Feminine nouns end in vowels that are always long, namely {eta} and {omega}. They also end in {alpha}, one of the vowels that can be lengthened. Thus, the number of letters that can end masculine and feminine nouns is the same. This is because {psi} and {xi} are equivalent to endings in {sigma}. No noun ends in a mute or a vowel that is naturally short. Only three end in {iota}: {mu eta lambda iota}, {kappa omicron mu mu iota}, and {pi epsilon pi epsilon rho iota}. Five end in {upsilon}. Neuter nouns end in these last two vowels, as well as in {nu} and {sigma}.]