Sustaining and Reproducing a Commonwealth

The Nourishment Of A Common-wealth Consisteth In The Commodities

A Commonwealth Is Sustained By Goods

Of Sea And Land

About Sea and Land

The NUTRITION of a Common-wealth consisteth, in the Plenty, and Distribution of Materials conducing to Life: In Concoction, or Preparation; and (when concocted) in the Conveyance of it, by convenient conduits, to the Publique use.

The nourishment of a commonwealth depends on an abundant supply and distribution of materials needed to sustain life. It also depends on processing or preparing those materials. Once prepared, the materials must be carried through suitable channels for public use.

As for the Plenty of Matter, it is a thing limited by Nature, to those commodities, which from (the two breasts of our common Mother) Land, and Sea, God usually either freely giveth, or for labour selleth to man-kind.

Nature limits the supply of materials to goods from land and sea. Land and sea are the two breasts of our common mother. God usually gives these goods freely to humanity or sells them in exchange for labor.

For the Matter of this Nutriment, consisting in Animals, Vegetals, and Minerals, God hath freely layd them before us, in or neer to the face of the Earth; so as there needeth no more but the labour, and industry of receiving them. Insomuch as Plenty dependeth (next to Gods favour) meerly on the labour and industry of men.

The materials for this nourishment consist of animals, plants, and minerals. God has freely provided them on or near the earth’s surface. So nothing more is needed than the work and effort of gathering them. Thus, apart from God’s favor, abundance depends entirely on human work and effort.

This Matter, commonly called Commodities, is partly Native, and partly Forraign: Native, that which is to be had within the Territory of the Common-wealth; Forraign, that which is imported from without. And because there is no Territory under the Dominion of one Common-wealth, (except it be of very vast extent,) that produceth all things needfull for the maintenance, and motion of the whole Body; and few that produce not something more than necessary; the superfluous commodities to be had within, become no more superfluous, but supply these wants at home, by importation of that which may be had abroad, either by Exchange, or by just Warre, or by Labour: for a mans Labour also, is a commodity exchangeable for benefit, as well as any other thing: And there have been Common-wealths that having no more Territory, than hath served them for habitation, have neverthelesse, not onely maintained, but also encreased their Power, partly by the labour of trading from one place to another, and partly by selling the Manifactures, whereof the Materials were brought in from other places.

These materials, commonly called commodities, are partly domestic and partly foreign. Domestic commodities are available within the territory of the commonwealth. Foreign commodities are imported from outside it. Unless a commonwealth’s territory is very large, it cannot produce everything needed to sustain the whole body and keep it active. Yet few territories fail to produce more of something than they need. So surplus commodities produced at home cease to be surplus when used to obtain imports that meet domestic needs. Goods available abroad can be obtained through exchange, just war, or labor. For a person’s labor, like any other commodity, can be exchanged for something of benefit. Some commonwealths have had only enough territory to provide a place for their people to live. Nevertheless, they have not only maintained their power but also increased it. They have done so partly by the work of trading from place to place. They have also sold manufactured goods made from materials brought in from elsewhere.

The Distribution of the Materials of this Nourishment, is the constitution of Mine, and Thine, and His, that is to say, in one word Propriety; and belongeth in all kinds of Common-wealth to the Soveraign Power. For where there is no Common-wealth, there is, (as hath been already shewn) a perpetuall warre of every man against his neighbour; And therefore every thing is his that getteth it, and keepeth it by force; which is neither Propriety nor Community; but Uncertainty. Which is so evident, that even Cicero, (a passionate defender of Liberty,) in a publique pleading, attributeth all Propriety to the Law Civil, “Let the Civill Law,” saith he, “be once abandoned, or but negligently guarded, (not to say oppressed,) and there is nothing, that any man can be sure to receive from his Ancestor, or leave to his Children.” And again; “Take away the Civill Law, and no man knows what is his own, and what another mans.” Seeing therefore the Introduction of Propriety is an effect of Common-wealth; which can do nothing but by the Person that Represents it, it is the act onely of the Soveraign; and consisteth in the Lawes, which none can make that have not the Soveraign Power. And this they well knew of old, who called that Nomos, (that is to say, Distribution,) which we call Law; and defined Justice, by distributing to every man his own.

Distributing the materials that provide this nourishment establishes what is mine, yours, and his. In a word, it establishes property. In every kind of commonwealth, this distribution belongs to the sovereign power. For where there is no commonwealth, there is, as already shown, endless war between every person and their neighbors. So everything belongs to whoever takes it and keeps it by force. This is neither private nor shared ownership, but uncertainty. This is so clear that even Cicero, a passionate defender of liberty, attributed all property to civil law. In a public legal argument, he said, “Once civil law is abandoned or even carelessly protected, not to mention suppressed, nothing is secure. No one can be sure of receiving anything from their ancestors or leaving anything to their children.” And again: “Take away civil law, and no one knows what belongs to them and what belongs to someone else.” Property, then, is established by the commonwealth. But the commonwealth can act only through the person who represents it. So establishing property is an act of the sovereign alone. Property is established through laws, and no one without sovereign power can make laws. The ancients understood this well. They used the word Nomos, meaning distribution, for what we call law. And they defined justice as giving each person what belongs to them.

In this Distribution, the First Law, is for Division of the Land it selfe: wherein the Soveraign assigneth to every man a portion, according as he, and not according as any Subject, or any number of them, shall judge agreeable to Equity, and the Common Good. The Children of Israel, were a Common-wealth in the Wildernesse; but wanted the commodities of the Earth, till they were masters of the Land of Promise; which afterward was divided amongst them, not by their own discretion, but by the discretion of Eleazar the Priest, and Joshua their Generall: who when there were twelve Tribes, making them thirteen by subdivision of the Tribe of Joseph; made neverthelesse but twelve portions of the Land; and ordained for the Tribe of Levi no land; but assigned them the Tenth part of the whole fruits; which division was therefore Arbitrary. And though a People comming into possession of a land by warre, do not alwaies exterminate the antient Inhabitants, (as did the Jewes,) but leave to many, or most, or all of them their Estates; yet it is manifest they hold them afterwards, as of the Victors distribution; as the people of England held all theirs of William the Conquerour.

In this distribution, the first law concerns the division of the land itself. The Sovereign assigns each man a share according to his own judgment of fairness and the common good. The judgment belongs to the Sovereign, not to any subject or group of subjects. The Children of Israel were a commonwealth in the wilderness. But they lacked the earth’s produce until they gained control of the Land of Promise. The land was then divided among them, not by their own judgment, but by that of Eleazar the Priest and Joshua their general. There were twelve Tribes, but Eleazar and Joshua made thirteen by subdividing the Tribe of Joseph. Nevertheless, they divided the land into only twelve shares. They gave the Tribe of Levi no land, but assigned that Tribe a tenth of the entire produce. This division therefore depended on the decision of those in charge. Although a people who gain possession of land through war do not always exterminate the former inhabitants (as the Jews did), they may leave many, most, or all of those inhabitants their estates. Yet clearly, the inhabitants afterward hold those estates as part of the victors’ distribution. In the same way, the people of England held all their estates from William the Conquerour.

From whence we may collect, that the Propriety which a subject hath in his lands, consisteth in a right to exclude all other subjects from the use of them; and not to exclude their Soveraign, be it an Assembly, or a Monarch. For seeing the Soveraign, that is to say, the Common-wealth (whose Person he representeth,) is understood to do nothing but in order to the common Peace and Security, this Distribution of lands, is to be understood as done in order to the same: And consequently, whatsoever Distribution he shall make in prejudice thereof, is contrary to the will of every subject, that committed his Peace, and safety to his discretion, and conscience; and therefore by the will of every one of them, is to be reputed voyd. It is true, that a Soveraign Monarch, or the greater part of a Soveraign Assembly, may ordain the doing of many things in pursuit of their Passions, contrary to their own consciences, which is a breach of trust, and of the Law of Nature; but this is not enough to authorise any subject, either to make warre upon, or so much as to accuse of Injustice, or any way to speak evill of their Soveraign; because they have authorised all his actions, and in bestowing the Soveraign Power, made them their own. But in what cases the Commands of Soveraigns are contrary to Equity, and the Law of Nature, is to be considered hereafter in another place.

From this we can conclude that a subject’s ownership of land means the right to exclude all other subjects from using it. It does not mean the right to exclude the sovereign, whether an assembly or a monarch. For the sovereign represents the Commonwealth and is understood to act only for the common peace and security. So the sovereign’s distribution of land must be understood as serving that same purpose. Consequently, any distribution that harms the common peace and security goes against every subject’s will. Each subject entrusted their peace and safety to the sovereign’s judgment and conscience. Therefore, by the will of every subject, such a distribution must be considered void. It is true that a sovereign monarch, or the majority of a sovereign assembly, may order many things to satisfy their passions. Such orders may go against their own consciences, breaking their trust and the Law of Nature. But this breach does not authorize any subject to wage war against the sovereign. Nor does it authorize any subject even to accuse the sovereign of injustice or speak ill of the sovereign in any way. This is because subjects have authorized all the sovereign’s actions. By granting sovereign power, subjects have made those actions their own. But the cases in which sovereigns’ commands go against fairness and the Law of Nature will be considered elsewhere, later.

In the Distribution of land, the Common-wealth it selfe, may be conceived to have a portion, and possesse, and improve the same by their Representative; and that such portion may be made sufficient, to susteine the whole expence to the common Peace, and defence necessarily required: Which were very true, if there could be any Representative conceived free from humane passions, and infirmities. But the nature of men being as it is, the setting forth of Publique Land, or of any certaine Revenue for the Common-wealth, is in vaine; and tendeth to the dissolution of Government, and to the condition of meere Nature, and War, assoon as ever the Soveraign Power falleth into the hands of a Monarch, or of an Assembly, that are either too negligent of mony, or too hazardous in engaging the publique stock, into a long, or costly war. Common-wealths can endure no Diet: For seeing their expence is not limited by their own appetite, but by externall Accidents, and the appetites of their neighbours, the Publique Riches cannot be limited by other limits, than those which the emergent occasions shall require. And whereas in England, there were by the Conquerour, divers Lands reserved to his own use, (besides Forrests, and Chases, either for his recreation, or for preservation of Woods,) and divers services reserved on the Land he gave his Subjects; yet it seems they were not reserved for his Maintenance in his Publique, but in his Naturall capacity: For he, and his Successors did for all that, lay Arbitrary Taxes on all Subjects land, when they judged it necessary. Or if those publique Lands, and Services, were ordained as a sufficient maintenance of the Common-wealth, it was contrary to the scope of the Institution; being (as it appeared by those ensuing Taxes) insufficient, and (as it appeares by the late Revenue of the Crown) Subject to Alienation, and Diminution. It is therefore in vaine, to assign a portion to the Common-wealth; which may sell, or give it away; and does sell, and give it away when tis done by their Representative.

When land is distributed, the Commonwealth itself may be thought to receive a share. Through its Representative, the Commonwealth may possess and develop that land. Such a share might cover all the expenses necessary for public peace and defense. This would be entirely true if any Representative could be imagined free from human passions and weaknesses. But human nature being what it is, setting aside public land or any fixed revenue for the Commonwealth is useless. Such a provision tends to dissolve government and restore the state of mere Nature and War. This happens as soon as sovereign power falls to a Monarch or Assembly with either of two failings. They may manage money too carelessly, or risk public funds too recklessly in a long or costly war. Commonwealths cannot live on a fixed allowance. Their expenses depend not on their own desires, but on outside events and their neighbors' desires. Public resources therefore cannot have any limits except those required by needs as they arise. In England, the Conquerour reserved various lands for his own use. He also reserved forests and hunting grounds, either for recreation or to preserve woodland. And he required various services from the land he gave his subjects. Yet these lands and services seem intended to support him as a private person, not as a public ruler. For despite these provisions, he and his successors taxed all their subjects' land at their discretion whenever they judged it necessary. Or perhaps these public lands and services were intended to provide sufficient support for the Commonwealth. If so, that provision worked against the purpose for which it was established. The later taxes showed that the provision was insufficient. And the Crown's recent revenue shows that such resources could be transferred away and reduced. It is therefore useless to assign the Commonwealth a share of land, since the Commonwealth may sell or give it away. And when its Representative sells or gives that land away, the Commonwealth itself does so.

As the Distribution of Lands at home; so also to assigne in what places, and for what commodities, the Subject shall traffique abroad, belongeth to the Soveraign. For if it did belong to private persons to use their own discretion therein, some of them would bee drawn for gaine, both to furnish the enemy with means to hurt the Common-wealth, and hurt it themselves, by importing such things, as pleasing mens appetites, be neverthelesse noxious, or at least unprofitable to them. And therefore it belongeth to the Common-wealth, (that is, to the Soveraign only,) to approve, or disapprove both of the places, and matter of forraign Traffique.

Just as the Sovereign controls the distribution of land at home, the Sovereign also controls the subjects’ trade abroad. The Sovereign decides where subjects may trade and what goods they may trade in. For if private individuals could decide for themselves, some would be tempted by profit to supply enemies with the means to harm the Commonwealth. Those same individuals would also harm the Commonwealth by importing goods that satisfy people’s desires but are nevertheless harmful, or at least useless, to them. Therefore, the Commonwealth alone (that is, the Sovereign alone) has the right to approve or reject both the places and the goods involved in foreign trade.

Further, seeing it is not enough to the Sustentation of a Common-wealth, that every man have a propriety in a portion of Land, or in some few commodities, or a naturall property in some usefull art, and there is no art in the world, but is necessary either for the being, or well being almost of every particular man; it is necessary, that men distribute that which they can spare, and transferre their propriety therein, mutually one to another, by exchange, and mutuall contract. And therefore it belongeth to the Common-wealth, (that is to say, to the Soveraign,) to appoint in what manner, all kinds of contract between Subjects, (as buying, selling, exchanging, borrowing, lending, letting, and taking to hire,) are to bee made; and by what words, and signes they shall be understood for valid. And for the Matter, and Distribution of the Nourishment, to the severall Members of the Common-wealth, thus much (considering the modell of the whole worke) is sufficient.

Furthermore, a Commonwealth cannot sustain itself merely because everyone owns some land, a few goods, or a useful skill. Every skill in the world is necessary for the survival or well-being of almost every individual. People must therefore distribute what they can spare, transferring ownership to one another through exchange and mutual agreement. So the Commonwealth, meaning the Sovereign, must determine how all kinds of contracts between subjects are to be made. These contracts include buying, selling, exchanging, borrowing, lending, renting out, and hiring. The Sovereign must also determine what words and signs make these contracts valid. Given the scope of this whole work, enough has now been said about the Commonwealth's nourishment and its distribution among its members.

By Concoction, I understand the reducing of all commodities, which are not presently consumed, but reserved for Nourishment in time to come, to some thing of equal value, and withall so portably, as not to hinder the motion of men from place to place; to the end a man may have in what place soever, such Nourishment as the place affordeth. And this is nothing else but Gold, and Silver, and Mony. For Gold and Silver, being (as it happens) almost in all Countries of the world highly valued, is a commodious measure for the value of all things else between Nations; and Mony (of what matter soever coyned by the Soveraign of a Common-wealth,) is a sufficient measure of the value of all things else, between the Subjects of that Common-wealth. By the means of which measures, all commodities, Moveable, and Immoveable, are made to accompany a man, to all places of his resort, within and without the place of his ordinary residence; and the same passeth from Man to Man, within the Common-wealth; and goes round about, Nourishing (as it passeth) every part thereof; In so much as this Concoction, is as it were the Sanguification of the Common-wealth: For naturall Bloud is in like manner made of the fruits of the Earth; and circulating, nourisheth by the way, every Member of the Body of Man.

By Concoction, I mean converting all goods kept for future nourishment, rather than immediate consumption, into something of equal value. This value must also be portable enough not to hinder people’s movement from place to place. The purpose is to let a person obtain whatever nourishment is available wherever he goes. This portable value is nothing other than gold, silver, and money. As it happens, gold and silver are highly valued in almost all countries of the world. They therefore provide a convenient measure of the value of all other things between nations. Money provides a sufficient measure of the value of all other things among the subjects of a commonwealth. This applies whatever material the commonwealth’s sovereign uses to coin the money. Through these measures of value, all goods, both movable and immovable, can accompany a person wherever he goes. This applies both within and beyond his usual place of residence. The same value passes from person to person within the commonwealth. As the value circulates, it nourishes every part of the commonwealth. Concoction is therefore, so to speak, the commonwealth’s process of making blood. For natural blood is likewise made from the fruits of the earth. As blood circulates, it nourishes every part of the human body along the way.

And because Silver and Gold, have their value from the matter it self; they have first this priviledge, that the value of them cannot be altered by the power of one, nor of a few Common-wealths; as being a common measure of the commodities of all places. But base Mony, may easily be enhanced, or abased. Secondly, they have the priviledge to make Common-wealths, move, and stretch out their armes, when need is, into forraign Countries; and supply, not only private Subjects that travell, but also whole Armies with provision. But that Coyne, which is not considerable for the Matter, but for the Stamp of the place, being unable to endure change of ayr, hath its effect at home only; where also it is subject to the change of Laws, and thereby to have the value diminished, to the prejudice many times of those that have it.

And because silver and gold get their value from the metals themselves, they have this first advantage. Their value cannot be changed by the power of one state or a few states. This is because silver and gold serve as a common measure of the value of goods everywhere. But the value of money made from less valuable metals can easily be raised or lowered. Second, silver and gold allow states to act abroad and extend their reach into foreign countries when needed. They can provide supplies not only for individual subjects travelling abroad, but also for entire armies. But coins valued not for their metal but for their local stamp cannot retain their value abroad. Such coins are useful only at home. Even there, changes in the law can reduce their value, often harming those who hold them.

The Conduits, and Wayes by which it is conveyed to the Publique use, are of two sorts; One, that Conveyeth it to the Publique Coffers; The other, that Issueth the same out againe for publique payments. Of the first sort, are Collectors, Receivers, and Treasurers; of the second are the Treasurers againe, and the Officers appointed for payment of severall publique or private Ministers. And in this also, the Artificiall Man maintains his resemblance with the Naturall; whose Veins receiving the Bloud from the severall Parts of the Body, carry it to the Heart; where being made Vitall, the Heart by the Arteries sends it out again, to enliven, and enable for motion all the Members of the same.

There are two kinds of channels through which it is directed to public use. One brings it into the public treasury. The other pays it out again for public expenses. The first kind includes collectors, receivers, and treasurers. The second includes treasurers again, along with officers appointed to pay various public or private servants. In this respect too, the Artificial Man maintains its resemblance to the natural human body. The veins receive blood from the various parts of the body and carry the blood to the heart. There the blood is given life, and the heart sends the blood out again through the arteries. In this way, the blood gives life to all the body's parts and enables them to move.

The Procreation, or Children of a Common-wealth, are those we call Plantations, or Colonies; which are numbers of men sent out from the Common-wealth, under a Conductor, or Governour, to inhabit a Forraign Country, either formerly voyd of Inhabitants, or made voyd then, by warre. And when a Colony is setled, they are either a Common-wealth of themselves, discharged of their subjection to their Soveraign that sent them, (as hath been done by many Common-wealths of antient time,) in which case the Common-wealth from which they went was called their Metropolis, or Mother, and requires no more of them, then Fathers require of the Children, whom they emancipate, and make free from their domestique government, which is Honour, and Friendship; or else they remain united to their Metropolis, as were the Colonies of the people of Rome; and then they are no Common-wealths themselves, but Provinces, and parts of the Common-wealth that sent them. So that the Right of Colonies (saving Honour, and League with their Metropolis,) dependeth wholly on their Licence, or Letters, by which their Soveraign authorised them to Plant.

The offspring, or children, of a commonwealth are what we call settlements, or colonies. These are groups of people sent out from the commonwealth under a leader or governor to inhabit a foreign country. That country was either previously uninhabited or emptied of inhabitants by war. Once a colony is settled, it may become an independent commonwealth, released from obedience to the sovereign who sent it. Many commonwealths in ancient times granted such independence. In this case, the original commonwealth was called the colony’s Metropolis, or mother. The mother commonwealth asks no more than fathers ask of children they release from their household authority: respect and friendship. Or colonies remain united to their Metropolis, as did the colonies of the people of Rome. In that case, the colonies are not commonwealths themselves, but provinces and parts of the commonwealth that sent them. Thus, apart from respect and alliance with their Metropolis, colonies’ rights depend entirely on their sovereign’s permission or written charter. Through that permission or charter, the sovereign authorized them to establish a colony.