Germany: Geography, Customs, and People¹

1. Germany ² is separated from Gaul, Rhaetia, ³ and Pannonia, ⁴ by the rivers Rhine and Danube; from Sarmatia and Dacia, by mountains ⁵ and mutual dread. The rest is surrounded by an ocean, embracing broad promontories ⁶ and vast insular tracts, ⁷ in which our military expeditions have lately discovered various nations and kingdoms. The Rhine, issuing from the inaccessible and precipitous summit of the Rhaetic Alps, ⁸ bends gently to the west, and falls into the Northern Ocean. The Danube, poured from the easy and gently raised ridge of Mount Abnoba, ⁹ visits several nations in its course, till at length it bursts out ¹⁰ by six channels ¹¹ into the Pontic sea; a seventh is lost in marshes.

1. Germany ² is separated from Gaul, Rhaetia, ³ and Pannonia, ⁴ by the Rhine and Danube rivers. Mountains ⁵ and mutual fear separate Germany from Sarmatia and Dacia. The rest is surrounded by an ocean that encircles broad headlands ⁶ and vast stretches of islands. ⁷ Among these, our military expeditions have recently discovered various nations and kingdoms. The Rhine rises on the steep, inaccessible summit of the Rhaetic Alps. ⁸ The river curves gently westward and flows into the Northern Ocean. The Danube rises on the low, gently sloping ridge of Mount Abnoba. ⁹ The river flows through several nations before finally rushing out ¹⁰ through six channels ¹¹ into the Pontic sea. A seventh channel disappears into marshes.

2. The people of Germany appear to me indigenous, ¹² and free from intermixture with foreigners, either as settlers or casual visitants. For the emigrants of former ages performed their expeditions not by land, but by water; ¹³ and that immense, and, if I may so call it, hostile ocean, is rarely navigated by ships from our world. ¹⁴ Then, besides the danger of a boisterous and unknown sea, who would relinquish Asia, Africa, or Italy, for Germany, a land rude in its surface, rigorous in its climate, cheerless to every beholder and cultivator, except a native? In their ancient songs, ¹⁵ which are their only records or annals, they celebrate the god Tuisto, ¹⁶ sprung from the earth, and his son Mannus, as the fathers and founders of their race. To Mannus they ascribe three sons, from whose names ¹⁷ the people bordering on the ocean are called Ingaevones; those inhabiting the central parts, Herminones; the rest, Istaevones. Some, ¹⁸ however, assuming the licence of antiquity, affirm that there were more descendants of the god, from whom more appellations were derived; as those of the Marsi, ¹⁹ Gambrivii, ²⁰ Suevi, ²¹ and Vandali; ²² and that these are the genuine and original names. ²³ That of Germany, on the other hand, they assert to be a modern addition; ²⁴ for that the people who first crossed the Rhine, and expelled the Gauls, and are now called Tungri, were then named Germans; which appellation of a particular tribe, not of a whole people, gradually prevailed; so that the title of Germans, first assumed by the victors in order to excite terror, was afterwards adopted by the nation in general. ²⁵ They have likewise the tradition of a Hercules ²⁶ of their country, whose praises they sing before those of all other heroes as they advance to battle.

2. The people of Germany seem to me to be native to the land, ¹² without foreign ancestry from settlers or occasional visitors. For in earlier ages, migrants traveled not by land but by sea. ¹³ And that vast and, if I may call it so, hostile ocean rarely sees ships from our world. ¹⁴ Besides the danger of a rough and unknown sea, who would leave Asia, Africa, or Italy for Germany? Its landscape is rough, its climate harsh, and it offers no cheer to anyone viewing or farming it, except a native. In their ancient songs, ¹⁵ their only records or histories, they celebrate the earth-born god Tuisto ¹⁶ and his son Mannus. They regard these two as the fathers and founders of their race. They say Mannus had three sons, whose names ¹⁷ gave the coastal people their name, Ingaevones. The people of the central regions are called Herminones, and the rest, Istaevones. Some, ¹⁸ however, take the freedom that ancient history allows and claim the god had more descendants. From these descendants came further names, such as Marsi, ¹⁹ Gambrivii, ²⁰ Suevi, ²¹ and Vandali. ²² They claim these are the true, original names. ²³ The name Germany, on the other hand, they claim, is a recent addition. ²⁴ The people who first crossed the Rhine and drove out the Gauls are now called Tungri. At that time, however, they were called Germans. This name originally belonged to one tribe, not the whole people, but gradually spread. The victors first adopted the name Germans to inspire terror, and afterward the nation as a whole adopted it. ²⁵ They also have a tradition of a Hercules ²⁶ from their own country. As they advance into battle, they sing his praises before those of all other heroes.

3. A peculiar kind of verses is also current among them, by the recital of which, termed "barding," ²⁷ they stimulate their courage; while the sound itself serves as an augury of the event of the impending combat. For, according to the nature of the cry proceeding from the line, terror is inspired or felt: nor does it seem so much an articulate song, as the wild chorus of valor. A harsh, piercing note, and a broken roar, are the favorite tones; which they render more full and sonorous by applying their mouths to their shields. ²⁸ Some conjecture that Ulysses, in the course of his long and fabulous wanderings, was driven into this ocean, and landed in Germany; and that Asciburgium, ²⁹ a place situated on the Rhine, and at this day inhabited, was founded by him, and named Askipurgion. They pretend that an altar was formerly discovered here, consecrated to Ulysses, with the name of his father Laertes subjoined; and that certain monuments and tombs, inscribed with Greek characters, ³⁰ are still extant upon the confines of Germany and Rhaetia. These allegations I shall neither attempt to confirm nor to refute: let every one believe concerning them as he is disposed.

3. They also have a distinctive kind of verse, whose recital, called "barding," ²⁷ stirs their courage. The sound itself serves as an omen of the coming battle’s outcome. Depending on the cry from the battle line, they either inspire terror or feel it themselves. The cry seems less a song with distinct words than a wild chorus of courage. They favor a harsh, piercing note and a broken roar. They make these sounds fuller and more resonant by holding their mouths against their shields. ²⁸ Some suppose that Ulysses, during his long, legendary wanderings, was driven into this ocean and landed in Germany. They also believe he founded Asciburgium, ²⁹ a settlement on the Rhine still inhabited today, and named it Askipurgion. They claim that an altar dedicated to Ulysses was once discovered there, with his father Laertes’ name inscribed beneath his. They also claim that certain monuments and tombs inscribed with Greek letters ³⁰ still survive along Germany’s border with Rhaetia. I shall try neither to confirm nor to refute these claims. Let everyone believe what they choose about them.

4. I concur in opinion with those who deem the Germans never to have intermarried with other nations; but to be a race, pure, unmixed, and stamped with a distinct character. Hence a family likeness pervades the whole, though their numbers are so great: eyes stern and blue; ruddy hair; large bodies, ³¹ powerful in sudden exertions, but impatient of toil and labor, least of all capable of sustaining thirst and heat. Cold and hunger they are accustomed by their climate and soil to endure.

4. I agree with those who believe the Germans have never intermarried with other nations. Instead, they are a pure, unmixed race with a distinct character. So, despite their great numbers, they all share a family likeness: fierce blue eyes, reddish hair, and large bodies, ³¹ capable of powerful bursts of effort. But they have little endurance for hard work and are least able to withstand thirst and heat. Their climate and soil have accustomed them to enduring cold and hunger.

5. The land, though varied to a considerable extent in its aspect, is yet universally shagged with forests, or deformed by marshes: moister on the side of Gaul, more bleak on the side of Norieum and Pannonia. ³² It is productive of grain, but unkindly to fruit-trees. ³³ It abounds in flocks and herds, but in general of a small breed. Even the beeve kind are destitute of their usual stateliness and dignity of head: ³⁴ they are, however, numerous, and form the most esteemed, and, indeed, the only species of wealth. Silver and gold the gods, I know not whether in their favor or anger, have denied to this country. ³⁵ Not that I would assert that no veins of these metals are generated in Germany; for who has made the search? The possession of them is not coveted by these people as it is by us. Vessels of silver are indeed to be seen among them, which have been presented to their ambassadors and chiefs; but they are held in no higher estimation than earthenware. The borderers, however, set a value on gold and silver for the purpose of commerce, and have learned to distinguish several kinds of our coin, some of which they prefer to others: the remoter inhabitants continue the more simple and ancient usage of bartering commodities. The money preferred by the Germans is the old and well-known species, such as the Serrati and Bigati. ³⁶ They are also better pleased with silver than gold; ³⁷ not on account of any fondness for that metal, but because the smaller money is more convenient in their common and petty merchandise.

5. Though the land varies considerably in appearance, forests cover it everywhere, or marshes disfigure it. It is wetter on the side facing Gaul, bleaker on the side facing Norieum and Pannonia. ³² The land produces grain, but is poorly suited to fruit trees. ³³ It has abundant flocks and herds, but the animals are generally small. Even the cattle lack their usual imposing appearance and noble heads. ³⁴ They are numerous, however, and are the most valued, indeed the only, form of wealth. The gods have denied this country silver and gold, whether as a favor or in anger, I cannot say. ³⁵ I would not claim, however, that Germany contains no veins of these metals. For who has searched? These people do not covet silver and gold as we do. Silver vessels can indeed be seen among them, presented as gifts to their ambassadors and chiefs. But they value these vessels no more than earthenware. Those living near the borders, however, value gold and silver for trade. They have learned to distinguish several kinds of our coins and prefer some to others. People farther inland continue the simpler, ancient practice of exchanging goods. The Germans prefer old, familiar coins, such as the Serrati and Bigati. ³⁶ They also prefer silver to gold. ³⁷ This is not because they are especially fond of silver. Rather, coins of lower value are more convenient for their everyday trade in small goods.

6. Even iron is not plentiful ³⁸ among them; as may be inferred from the nature of their weapons. Swords or broad lances are seldom used; but they generally carry a spear, (called in their language framea, ³⁹) which has an iron blade, short and narrow, but so sharp and manageable, that, as occasion requires, they employ it either in close or distant fighting. ⁴⁰ This spear and a shield are all the armor of the cavalry. The foot have, besides, missile weapons, several to each man, which they hurl to an immense distance. ⁴¹ They are either naked, ⁴² or lightly covered with a small mantle; and have no pride in equipage: their shields only are ornamented with the choicest colors. ⁴³ Few are provided with a coat of mail; ⁴⁴ and scarcely here and there one with a casque or helmet. ⁴⁵ Their horses are neither remarkable for beauty nor swiftness, nor are they taught the various evolutions practised with us. The cavalry either bear down straight forwards, or wheel once to the right, in so compact a body that none is left behind the rest. Their principal strength, on the whole, consists in their infantry: hence in an engagement these are intermixed with the cavalry; ⁴⁶ so Well accordant with the nature of equestrian combats is the agility of those foot soldiers, whom they select from the whole body of their youth, and place in the front of the line. Their number, too, is determined; a hundred from each canton: ⁴⁷ and they are distinguished at home by a name expressive of this circumstance; so that what at first was only an appellation of number, becomes thenceforth a title of honor. Their line of battle is disposed in wedges. ⁴⁸ To give ground, provided they rally again, is considered rather as a prudent strategem, than cowardice. They carry off their slain even while the battle remains undecided. The greatest disgrace that can befall them is to have abandoned their shields. ⁴⁹ A person branded with this ignominy is not permitted to join in their religious rites, or enter their assemblies; so that many, after escaping from battle, have put an end to their infamy by the halter.

6. Even iron is scarce ³⁸ among them, as the nature of their weapons suggests. They seldom use swords or broad lances. Instead, they generally carry a spear (called framea in their language, ³⁹) with a short, narrow iron blade. The spear is so sharp and easy to handle that they use it for close or distant fighting as needed. ⁴⁰ This spear and a shield are the cavalry’s only armor. The infantry also carry throwing weapons, several per man, which they hurl enormous distances. ⁴¹ The soldiers are either naked, ⁴² or lightly covered with a small cloak. They take no pride in their equipment. Only their shields are decorated with the finest colors. ⁴³ Few have a coat of mail, ⁴⁴ and only a rare individual has a helmet. ⁴⁵ Their horses stand out neither for beauty nor for speed. Nor are the horses trained in the varied maneuvers practiced among us. The cavalry either charge straight ahead or make a single turn to the right. They move in such a tight formation that no rider falls behind. Overall, their main strength lies in their infantry. For this reason, infantry fight alongside the cavalry in battle. ⁴⁶ These foot soldiers are selected from all their young men and placed at the front of the battle line. Their agility makes them well suited to fighting alongside horsemen. Their number is also fixed: a hundred from each district. ⁴⁷ At home, they are known by a name that reflects this number. Thus, what began as a numerical label becomes a title of honor. Their battle line is arranged in wedges. ⁴⁸ Retreating, provided they rally again, is considered a sensible tactic rather than cowardice. They carry away their dead even while the battle’s outcome remains uncertain. The greatest disgrace they can suffer is to have abandoned their shields. ⁴⁹ Anyone marked by this shame is barred from taking part in religious rites or entering their assemblies. As a result, many who have escaped from battle have ended their disgrace by hanging themselves.

7. In the election of kings they have regard to birth; in that of generals, ⁵⁰ to valor. Their kings have not an absolute or unlimited power; ⁵¹ and their generals command less through the force of authority, than of example. If they are daring, adventurous, and conspicuous in action, they procure obedience from the admiration they inspire. None, however, but the priests ⁵² are permitted to judge offenders, to inflict bonds or stripes; so that chastisement appears not as an act of military discipline, but as the instigation of the god whom they suppose present with warriors. They also carry with them to battle certain images and standards taken from the sacred groves. ⁵³ It is a principal incentive to their courage, that their squadrons and battalions are not formed by men fortuitously collected, but by the assemblage of families and clans. Their pledges also are near at hand; they have within hearing the yells of their women, and the cries of their children. These, too, are the most revered witnesses of each man's conduct, these his most liberal applauders. To their mothers and their wives they bring their wounds for relief, nor do these dread to count or to search out the gashes. The women also administer food and encouragement to those who are fighting.

7. They choose kings for their ancestry and generals, ⁵⁰ for their courage. Their kings do not have absolute or unlimited power. ⁵¹ Their generals lead less by authority than by example. If the generals are bold, adventurous, and stand out in battle, the admiration they inspire wins obedience. Only the priests, ⁵² however, may judge offenders, put them in chains, or have them whipped. Punishment therefore seems not an act of military discipline, but the prompting of the god they believe accompanies their warriors. They also carry certain images and standards from the sacred groves into battle. ⁵³ A major source of their courage is that their cavalry units and infantry formations consist of families and clans. They are not made up of men gathered at random. Those dearest to them are also nearby. They can hear their women's shouts and their children's cries. These are the most respected witnesses of each man's conduct and the most generous in their praise. The men bring their wounds to their mothers and wives for treatment. The women do not shrink from counting or examining the gashes. The women also bring food and encouragement to those who are fighting.

8. Tradition relates, that armies beginning to give way have been rallied by the females, through the earnestness of their supplications, the interposition of their bodies, ⁵⁴ and the pictures they have drawn of impending slavery, ⁵⁵ a calamity which these people bear with more impatience for their women than themselves; so that those states who have been obliged to give among their hostages the daughters of noble families, are the most effectually bound to fidelity. ⁵⁶ They even suppose somewhat of sanctity and prescience to be inherent in the female sex; and therefore neither despise their counsels, ⁵⁷ nor disregard their responses. ⁵⁸ We have beheld, in the reign of Vespasian, Veleda, ⁵⁹ long reverenced by many as a deity. Aurima, moreover, and several others, ⁶⁰ were formerly held in equal veneration, but not with a servile flattery, nor as though they made them goddesses. ⁶¹

8. Tradition tells us that women have rallied armies beginning to retreat. They have done so through urgent pleas, by placing their bodies in the way, ⁵⁴ and by describing the slavery ahead. ⁵⁵ These people find the thought of slavery harder to bear for their women than for themselves. So communities forced to give daughters of noble families as hostages are bound most firmly to remain loyal. ⁵⁶ They even believe that women have something sacred within them and some power to foresee the future. They therefore neither dismiss women's advice, ⁵⁷ nor ignore their prophetic answers. ⁵⁸ In Vespasian's reign, we ourselves saw Veleda, ⁵⁹ whom many had long revered as a deity. Aurima and several others, ⁶⁰ were once held in equal reverence. But this was not servile flattery, nor did their followers treat them as though making them goddesses. ⁶¹

9. Of the gods, Mercury ⁶² is the principal object of their adoration; whom, on certain days, ⁶³ they think it lawful to propitiate even with human victims. To Hercules and Mars ⁶⁴ they offer the animals usually allotted for sacrifice. ⁶⁵ Some of the Suevi also perform sacred rites to Isis. What was the cause and origin of this foreign worship, I have not been able to discover; further than that her being represented with the symbol of a galley, seems to indicate an imported religion. ⁶⁶ They conceive it unworthy the grandeur of celestial beings to confine their deities within walls, or to represent them under a human similitude: ⁶⁷ woods and groves are their temples; and they affix names of divinity to that secret power, which they behold with the eye of adoration alone.

9. Of the gods, Mercury ⁶² is the one they worship most. On certain days, ⁶³ they consider it lawful to appease him even with human sacrifices. To Hercules and Mars ⁶⁴ they offer the animals usually chosen for sacrifice. ⁶⁵ Some of the Suevi also perform sacred rites to Isis. I have not been able to discover the cause or origin of this foreign worship. The only clue is that Isis is represented by the symbol of a galley, suggesting an imported religion. ⁶⁶ They consider it unworthy of the gods’ greatness to confine them within walls or portray them in human form. ⁶⁷ Woods and groves are their temples. They give divine names to the hidden power they perceive only through worship.

10. No people are more addicted to divination by omens and lots. The latter is performed in the following simple manner. They cut a twig ⁶⁸ from a fruit-tree, and divide it into small pieces, which, distinguished by certain marks, are thrown promiscuously upon a white garment. Then, the priest of the canton, if the occasion be public; if private, the master of the family; after an invocation of the gods, with his eyes lifted up to heaven, thrice takes out each piece, and, as they come up, interprets their signification according to the marks fixed upon them. If the result prove unfavorable, there is no more consultation on the same affair that day; if propitious, a confirmation by omens is still required. In common with other nations, the Germans are acquainted with the practice of auguring from the notes and flight of birds; but it is peculiar to them to derive admonitions and presages from horses also. ⁶⁹ Certain of these animals, milk-white, and untouched by earthly labor, are pastured at the public expense in the sacred woods and groves. These, yoked to a consecrated chariot, are accompanied by the priest, and king, or chief person of the community, who attentively observe their manner of neighing and snorting; and no kind of augury is more credited, not only among the populace, but among the nobles and priests. For the latter consider themselves as the ministers of the gods, and the horses, as privy to the divine will. Another kind of divination, by which they explore the event of momentous wars, is to oblige a prisoner, taken by any means whatsoever from the nation with whom they are at variance, to fight with a picked man of their own, each with his own country's arms; and, according as the victory falls, they presage success to the one or to the other party. ⁷⁰

10. No people are more devoted to divination through omens and the drawing of lots. They draw lots in the following simple way. They cut a twig ⁶⁸ from a fruit tree and divide it into small pieces. They mark the pieces with different symbols and scatter them randomly on a white cloth. For public matters, the district's priest conducts the ceremony. For private matters, the head of the household does so. After calling on the gods, he looks up to heaven and draws pieces three times. As each piece comes up, he interprets its meaning according to its marks. If the result is unfavorable, they make no further inquiry about the same matter that day. If favorable, they still require confirmation through omens. Like other nations, the Germans know how to read omens from birds' calls and flight. But only the Germans also seek warnings and predictions from horses. ⁶⁹ Certain horses, pure white and never used for ordinary work, graze in sacred woods and groves at public expense. These horses are harnessed to a sacred chariot. The priest and the community's king or chief accompany them, carefully observing their neighing and snorting. No form of divination is trusted more, not only among ordinary people but also among nobles and priests. For the priests consider themselves servants of the gods, but believe the horses know the gods' will. They use another kind of divination to predict the outcome of major wars. They take a prisoner, captured by any means from the nation they are in conflict with. They force him to fight a chosen man of their own, each using his own country's weapons. Depending on who wins, they predict success for one side or the other. ⁷⁰

11. On affairs of smaller moment, the chiefs consult; on those of greater importance, the whole community; yet with this circumstance, that what is referred to the decision of the people, is first maturely discussed by the chiefs. ⁷¹ They assemble, unless upon some sudden emergency, on stated days, either at the new or full moon, which they account the most auspicious season for beginning any enterprise. Nor do they, in their computation of time, reckon, like us, by the number of days, but of nights. In this way they arrange their business; in this way they fix their appointments; so that, with them, the night seems to lead the day. ⁷² An inconvenience produced by their liberty is, that they do not all assemble at a stated time, as if it were in obedience to a command; but two or three days are lost in the delays of convening. When they all think fit, ⁷³ they sit down armed. ⁷⁴ Silence is proclaimed by the priests, who have on this occasion a coercive power. Then the king, or chief, and such others as are conspicuous for age, birth, military renown, or eloquence, are heard; and gain attention rather from their ability to persuade, than their authority to command. If a proposal displease, the assembly reject it by an inarticulate murmur; if it prove agreeable, they clash their javelins; ⁷⁵ for the most honorable expression of assent among them is the sound of arms.

11. The chiefs discuss minor matters, while the whole community considers those of greater importance. Yet the chiefs first discuss thoroughly whatever is put before the people for a decision. ⁷¹ Unless a sudden emergency arises, they meet on fixed days, at either the new or full moon. They consider these the luckiest times to begin any undertaking. Unlike us, they measure time not by days but by nights. This is how they arrange their business and set their appointments, so that night seems to lead the day. ⁷² One drawback of their freedom is that they do not all gather at the appointed time, as if obeying a command. Instead, two or three days are lost while everyone gathers. When they all think fit, ⁷³ they sit down armed. ⁷⁴ The priests call for silence and have the power to enforce it on these occasions. Then the king or chief speaks. Others distinguished by age, birth, military fame, or eloquence are also heard. These speakers gain attention more through their power to persuade than through their authority to command. If a proposal displeases the assembly, they reject it with an indistinct murmur. If they approve, they clash their javelins. ⁷⁵ For among them, the sound of weapons is the most honorable expression of agreement.

12. Before this council, it is likewise allowed to exhibit accusations, and to prosecute capital offences. Punishments are varied according to the nature of the crime. Traitors and deserters are hung upon trees: ⁷⁶ cowards, dastards, ⁷⁷ and those guilty of unnatural practices, ⁷⁸ are suffocated in mud under a hurdle. ⁷⁹ This difference of punishment has in view the principle, that villainy should be exposed while it is punished, but turpitude concealed. The penalties annexed to slighter offences ⁸⁰ are also proportioned to the delinquency. The convicts are fined in horses and cattle: ⁸¹ part of the mulct ⁸² goes to the king or state; part to the injured person, or his relations. In the same assemblies chiefs ⁸³ are also elected, to administer justice through the cantons and districts. A hundred companions, chosen from the people, attended upon each of them, to assist them as well with their advice as their authority.

12. Accusations may also be brought before this council, and crimes punishable by death may be prosecuted there. Punishments vary according to the crime. Traitors and deserters are hanged from trees: ⁷⁶ cowards, the fainthearted, ⁷⁷ and those guilty of unnatural sexual acts, ⁷⁸ are suffocated in mud beneath a wicker frame. ⁷⁹ These different punishments follow a principle: wickedness should be exposed during punishment, but shameful acts should be hidden. Penalties for lesser offences ⁸⁰ are also proportionate to the wrongdoing. Those convicted are fined in horses and cattle: ⁸¹ part of the fine ⁸² goes to the king or state. The rest goes to the injured person or their relatives. The same assemblies also elect chiefs ⁸³ to administer justice throughout the cantons and districts. Each chief is accompanied by a hundred men chosen from the people, who support him with advice and authority.

13. The Germans transact no business, public or private, without being armed: ⁸⁴ but it is not customary for any person to assume arms till the state has approved his ability to use them. Then, in the midst of the assembly, either one of the chiefs, or the father, or a relation, equips the youth with a shield and javelin. ⁸⁵ These are to them the manly gown; ⁸⁶ this is the first honor conferred on youth: before this they are considered as part of a household; afterwards, of the state. The dignity of chieftain is bestowed even on mere lads, whose descent is eminently illustrious, or whose fathers have performed signal services to the public; they are associated, however, with those of mature strength, who have already been declared capable of service; nor do they blush to be seen in the rank of companions. ⁸⁷ For the state of companionship itself has its several degrees, determined by the judgment of him whom they follow; and there is a great emulation among the companions, which shall possess the highest place in the favor of their chief; and among the chiefs, which shall excel in the number and valor of his companions. It is their dignity, their strength, to be always surrounded with a large body of select youth, an ornament in peace, a bulwark in war. And not in his own country alone, but among the neighboring states, the fame and glory of each chief consists in being distinguished for the number and bravery of his companions. Such chiefs are courted by embassies; distinguished by presents; and often by their reputation alone decide a war.

13. The Germans conduct no business, public or private, without being armed. ⁸⁴ But no one customarily takes up arms until the state has approved his ability to use them. Then, before the assembly, a chief, the young man's father, or another relative gives him a shield and javelin. ⁸⁵ These weapons are their gown of manhood. ⁸⁶ Receiving them is a young man's first honor. Before this ceremony, young men are considered members of a household. Afterwards, they are members of the state. Even mere boys receive the rank of chief if their ancestry is especially distinguished or their fathers have served the public outstandingly. However, these boys serve alongside men of mature strength who have already been declared fit for service. Nor are the boys ashamed to serve as companions. ⁸⁷ The companions themselves hold different ranks, assigned by the chief they follow. The companions compete fiercely for the highest place in their chief's favor. The chiefs compete to have the most companions and the bravest. Always having a large band of carefully chosen young men around them gives chiefs prestige and strength. These young men are an ornament in peace and a defense in war. A chief's fame and glory depend on the number and bravery of his companions. His reputation extends beyond his own country to neighboring states. Such chiefs are courted by ambassadors and honored with gifts. Often, their reputation alone decides the outcome of a war.

14. In the field of battle, it is disgraceful for the chief to be surpassed in valor; it is disgraceful for the companions not to equal their chief; but it is reproach and infamy during a whole succeeding life to retreat from the field surviving him. ⁸⁸ To aid, to protect him; to place their own gallant actions to the account of his glory, is their first and most sacred engagement. The chiefs fight for victory; the companions for their chief. If their native country be long sunk in peace and inaction, many of the young nobles repair to some other state then engaged in war. For, besides that repose is unwelcome to their race, and toils and perils afford them a better opportunity of distinguishing themselves; they are unable, without war and violence, to maintain a large train of followers. The companion requires from the liberality of his chief, the warlike steed, the bloody and conquering spear: and in place of pay, he expects to be supplied with a table, homely indeed, but plentiful. ⁸⁹ The funds for this munificence must be found in war and rapine; nor are they so easily persuaded to cultivate the earth, and await the produce of the seasons, as to challenge the foe, and expose themselves to wounds; nay, they even think it base and spiritless to earn by sweat what they might purchase with blood.

14. In battle, it is disgraceful for a chief to be outdone in courage. It is disgraceful for his companions not to match his courage. But leaving the battlefield alive after their chief has died brings shame and dishonor for the rest of their lives. ⁸⁸ Their first and most sacred duty is to help and protect him, and give him credit for their own bravery. Chiefs fight for victory. Companions fight for their chief. If their homeland remains at peace and idle for a long time, many young nobles seek another state at war. For their people dislike inactivity, and hardship and danger offer better chances to distinguish themselves. Besides, without war and violence, they cannot support a large following. A companion expects his chief to give him a warhorse and a bloodstained, victorious spear. Instead of pay, he expects simple but plentiful meals. ⁸⁹ The wealth needed for this generosity must come from war and plunder. These men are less easily persuaded to farm and wait for the harvest than to challenge enemies and risk wounds. Indeed, they think it shameful and cowardly to earn by sweat what they could buy with blood.

15. During the intervals of war, they pass their time less in hunting than in a sluggish repose, ⁹⁰ divided between sleep and the table. All the bravest of the warriors, committing the care of the house, the family affairs, and the lands, to the women, old men, and weaker part of the domestics, stupefy themselves in inaction: so wonderful is the contrast presented by nature, that the same persons love indolence, and hate tranquillity! ⁹¹ It is customary for the several states to present, by voluntary and individual contributions, ⁹² cattle or grain ⁹³ to their chiefs; which are accepted as honorary gifts, while they serve as necessary supplies. ⁹⁴ They are peculiarly pleased with presents from neighboring nations, offered not only by individuals, but by the community at large; such as fine horses, heavy armor, rich housings, and gold chains. We have now taught them also to accept of money. ⁹⁵

15. Between wars, they spend less time hunting than resting idly, ⁹⁰ dividing their time between sleep and feasting. All the bravest warriors leave the household, family affairs, and land to women, old men, and weaker household members. The warriors numb themselves with inactivity. Nature presents such an astonishing contrast: the same people love idleness and hate peace! ⁹¹ Each state customarily gives its chiefs voluntary contributions from individuals, ⁹² consisting of cattle or grain. ⁹³ The chiefs accept these as gifts of honor, though the gifts also provide necessary supplies. ⁹⁴ The chiefs are especially pleased with presents from neighboring nations, offered by both individuals and whole communities. These include fine horses, heavy armor, rich horse coverings, and gold chains. We have now taught them to accept money too. ⁹⁵

16. It is well known that none of the German nations inhabit cities; ⁹⁶ or even admit of contiguous settlements. They dwell scattered and separate, as a spring, a meadow, or a grove may chance to invite them. Their villages are laid out, not like ours in rows of adjoining buildings; but every one surrounds his house with a vacant space, ⁹⁷ either by way of security against fire, ⁹⁸ or through ignorance of the art of building. For, indeed, they are unacquainted with the use of mortar and tiles; and for every purpose employ rude unshapen timber, fashioned with no regard to pleasing the eye. They bestow more than ordinary pains in coating certain parts of their buildings with a kind of earth, so pure and shining that it gives the appearance of painting. They also dig subterraneous caves, ⁹⁹ and cover them over with a great quantity of dung. These they use as winter-retreats, and granaries; for they preserve a moderate temperature; and upon an invasion, when the open country is plundered, these recesses remain unviolated, either because the enemy is ignorant of them, or because he will not trouble himself with the search. ¹⁰⁰

16. It is well known that none of the German nations live in cities. ⁹⁶ They do not even allow settlements with houses touching one another. They live scattered and apart, wherever a spring, meadow, or grove may attract them. Their villages are not laid out like ours, in rows of adjoining buildings. Instead, everyone leaves an open space around his house, ⁹⁷ either to guard against fire, ⁹⁸ or from ignorance of building techniques. Indeed, they do not know how to use mortar or tiles. For every purpose, they use rough, unshaped timber, with no concern for its appearance. They take unusual care to coat certain parts of their buildings with a kind of earth. This earth is so pure and bright that the coating looks like paint. They also dig underground chambers, ⁹⁹ and cover them with large amounts of dung. They use these chambers as winter shelters and grain stores, because the chambers maintain a moderate temperature. During an invasion, when the open country is plundered, these hiding places remain untouched. Either the enemy does not know about them, or he will not bother to search for them. ¹⁰⁰

17. The clothing common to all is a sagum ¹⁰¹ fastened by a clasp, or, in want of that, a thorn. With no other covering, they pass whole days on the hearth, before the fire. The more wealthy are distinguished by a vest, not flowing loose, like those of the Sarmatians and Parthians, but girt close, and exhibiting the shape of every limb. They also wear the skins of beasts, which the people near the borders are less curious in selecting or preparing than the more remote inhabitants, who cannot by commerce procure other clothing. These make choice of particular skins, which they variegate with spots, and strips of the furs of marine animals, ¹⁰² the produce of the exterior ocean, and seas to us unknown. ¹⁰³ The dress of the women does not differ from that of the men; except that they more frequently wear linen, ¹⁰⁴ which they stain with purple; ¹⁰⁵ and do not lengthen their upper garment into sleeves, but leave exposed the whole arm, and part of the breast.

17. All wear a sagum ¹⁰¹, a cloak fastened with a clasp or, if none is available, a thorn. With no other covering, they spend whole days by the fire on the hearth. The wealthier people stand out by wearing a tunic. Unlike the loose garments of the Sarmatians and Parthians, their tunics fit tightly and show the shape of every limb. They also wear animal skins. People near the borders take less care in choosing or preparing these than those living farther away. The latter cannot obtain other clothing through trade. These more remote inhabitants choose particular skins and decorate them with spots and strips of fur from marine animals. ¹⁰² These animals come from the outer ocean and seas unknown to us. ¹⁰³ Women dress like men, except that they more often wear linen, ¹⁰⁴ which they dye purple. ¹⁰⁵ Their outer garments have no sleeves, leaving the whole arm and part of the breast exposed.

18. The matrimonial bond is, nevertheless, strict and severe among them; nor is there anything in their manners more commendable than this. ¹⁰⁶ Almost singly among the barbarians, they content themselves with one wife; a very few of them excepted, who, not through incontinence, but because their alliance is solicited on account of their rank, ¹⁰⁷ practise polygamy. The wife does not bring a dowry to her husband, but receives one from him. ¹⁰⁸ The parents and relations assemble, and pass their approbation on the presents—presents not adapted to please a female taste, or decorate the bride; but oxen, a caparisoned steed, a shield, spear, and sword. By virtue of these, the wife is espoused; and she in her turn makes a present of some arms to her husband. This they consider as the firmest bond of union; these, the sacred mysteries, the conjugal deities. That the woman may not think herself excused from exertions of fortitude, or exempt from the casualties of war, she is admonished by the very ceremonial of her marriage, that she comes to her husband as a partner in toils and dangers; to suffer and to dare equally with him, in peace and in war: this is indicated by the yoked oxen, the harnessed steed, the offered arms. Thus she is to live; thus to die. She receives what she is to return inviolate ¹⁰⁹ and honored to her children; what her daughters-in-law are to receive, and again transmit to her grandchildren.

18. Nevertheless, the marriage bond among them is strict and demanding. Nothing in their customs deserves greater praise. ¹⁰⁶ Almost alone among barbarians, they are content with one wife. Only a very few have several wives. This is not because of lust, but because their rank makes others seek marriage alliances with them. ¹⁰⁷ The wife does not bring her husband a dowry, but receives one from him. ¹⁰⁸ Parents and relatives gather and approve the gifts. These gifts are not meant to please a woman's taste or adorn the bride. Instead, they are oxen, a horse fitted for riding, a shield, a spear, and a sword. These gifts seal the marriage, and the wife in turn gives her husband some weapons. They regard these gifts as the strongest bond of marriage, its sacred mysteries, and its guardian gods. The marriage ceremony itself warns the woman not to think herself excused from acts of courage or the risks of war. She joins her husband as a partner in hardship and danger. She must suffer and face danger equally with him, in peace and war. The yoked oxen, the harnessed horse, and the weapons offered all express this duty. This is how she must live, and how she must die. She receives what she must pass on intact ¹⁰⁹ and honored to her children. Her daughters-in-law must receive the same and pass it on again to her grandchildren.

19. They live, therefore, fenced around with chastity; ¹¹⁰ corrupted by no seductive spectacles, ¹¹¹ no convivial incitements. Men and women are alike unacquainted with clandestine correspondence. Adultery is extremely rare among so numerous a people. Its punishment is instant, and at the pleasure of the husband. He cuts off the hair ¹¹² of the offender, strips her, and in presence of her relations expels her from his house, and pursues her with stripes through the whole village. ¹¹³ Nor is any indulgence shown to a prostitute. Neither beauty, youth, nor riches can procure her a husband: for none there looks on vice with a smile, or calls mutual seduction the way of the world. Still more exemplary is the practice of those states ¹¹⁴ in which none but virgins marry, and the expectations and wishes of a wife are at once brought to a period. Thus, they take one husband as one body and one life; that no thought, no desire, may extend beyond him; and he may be loved not only as their husband, but as their marriage. ¹¹⁵ To limit the increase of children, ¹¹⁶ or put to death any of the later progeny ¹¹⁷ is accounted infamous: and good habits have there more influence than good laws elsewhere. ¹¹⁸

19. They therefore live protected by chastity. ¹¹⁰ No seductive spectacles ¹¹¹ or temptations at feasts corrupt them. Men and women alike know nothing of secret correspondence. Adultery is extremely rare among so large a population. Punishment is immediate and left to the husband’s discretion. He cuts off the offending wife’s hair, ¹¹² strips her, and drives her from his house before her relatives. He then whips her through the whole village. ¹¹³ Nor is any leniency shown to a prostitute. Neither beauty, youth, nor wealth can win her a husband. For no one there smiles at vice or calls mutual seduction the way of the world. Still more admirable is the practice of those states ¹¹⁴ where only virgins marry. A wife’s hopes and wishes for marriage are fulfilled once and for all. Thus, women take one husband, just as they have one body and one life. This is so that no thought or desire may reach beyond him. He is to be loved not only as their husband, but as their marriage itself. ¹¹⁵ To limit the number of children, ¹¹⁶ or kill any children born later, ¹¹⁷ is considered shameful. Good habits have more influence there than good laws have elsewhere. ¹¹⁸

20. In every house the children grow up, thinly and meanly clad, ¹¹⁹ to that bulk of body and limb which we behold with wonder. Every mother suckles her own children, and does not deliver them into the hands of servants and nurses. No indulgence distinguishes the young master from the slave. They lie together amidst the same cattle, upon the same ground, till age ¹²⁰ separates, and valor marks out, the free-born. The youths partake late of the pleasures of love, ¹²¹ and hence pass the age of puberty unexhausted: nor are the virgins hurried into marriage; the same maturity, the same full growth is required: the sexes unite equally matched ¹²² and robust; and the children inherit the vigor of their parents. Children are regarded with equal affection by their maternal uncles ¹²³ as by their fathers: some even consider this as the more sacred bond of consanguinity, and prefer it in the requisition of hostages, as if it held the mind by a firmer tie, and the family by a more extensive obligation. A person's own children, however, are his heirs and successors; and no wills are made. If there be no children, the next in order of inheritance are brothers, paternal and maternal uncles. The more numerous are a man's relations and kinsmen, the more comfortable is his old age; nor is it here any advantage to be childless. ¹²⁴

20. In every household, children grow up in thin, shabby clothing, ¹¹⁹ developing the huge bodies and limbs we marvel at. Every mother nurses her own children rather than handing them over to servants and nurses. The young master receives no more pampering than the slave. Both lie among the same cattle, on the same ground, until age ¹²⁰ separates them and courage distinguishes the freeborn. Young men begin enjoying sexual pleasures late, ¹²¹ and so reach the end of puberty with their strength undiminished. Nor are young women rushed into marriage. They must reach the same maturity and full growth. The sexes come together equally matched ¹²² and strong, and their children inherit their parents' vigor. Maternal uncles ¹²³ love their sisters' children as much as fathers love their own. Some even regard the bond with a maternal uncle as the more sacred blood tie. They prefer that bond when demanding hostages, as if it bound people's hearts more firmly and placed obligations on more relatives. A person's own children, however, are his heirs and successors, and no wills are made. If there are no children, brothers come next in line to inherit, followed by paternal and maternal uncles. The more relatives and kinsmen a man has, the more comfortable his old age. Being childless brings no advantage here. ¹²⁴

21. It is an indispensable duty to adopt the enmities ¹²⁵ of a father or relation, as well as their friendships: these, however, are not irreconcilable or perpetual. Even homicide is atoned ¹²⁶ by a certain fine in cattle and sheep; and the whole family accepts the satisfaction, to the advantage of the public weal, since quarrels are most dangerous in a free state. No people are more addicted to social entertainments, or more liberal in the exercise of hospitality. ¹²⁷ To refuse any person whatever admittance under their roof, is accounted flagitious. ¹²⁸ Every one according to his ability feasts his guest: when his provisions are exhausted, he who was late the host, is now the guide and companion to another hospitable board. They enter the next house uninvited, and are received with equal cordiality. No one makes a distinction with respect to the rights of hospitality, between a stranger and an acquaintance. The departing guest is presented with whatever he may ask for; and with the same freedom a boon is desired in return. They are pleased with presents; but think no obligation incurred either when they give or receive.

21. Taking on the feuds ¹²⁵ of a father or relative, as well as their friendships, is an essential duty. But these feuds can be settled and do not last forever. Even killing someone can be atoned for ¹²⁶ by paying a set fine in cattle and sheep. The whole family accepts this compensation, which benefits the public good, since quarrels are most dangerous in a free state. No people are more devoted to social gatherings or more generous in their hospitality. ¹²⁷ Refusing anyone shelter under their roof is considered shameful. ¹²⁸ Everyone provides a feast for a guest according to their means. When the food runs out, the former host guides and accompanies the guest to another welcoming table. The two enter the next house uninvited and receive an equally warm welcome. No one distinguishes between strangers and acquaintances when offering hospitality. A departing guest is given whatever they ask for. With the same freedom, the host asks for a gift in return. They enjoy presents, but feel no obligation when giving or receiving them.

22. ¹²⁹ [Their manner of living with their guest is easy and affable] As soon as they arise from sleep, which they generally protract till late in the day, they bathe, usually in warm water, ¹³⁰ as cold weather chiefly prevails there. After bathing they take their meal, each on a distinct seat, and a a separate table. ¹³¹ Then they proceed, armed, to business, and not less frequently to convivial parties, in which it is no disgrace to pass days and nights, without intermission, in drinking. The frequent quarrels that arise amongst them, when intoxicated, seldom terminate in abusive language, but more frequently in blood. ¹³² In their feasts, they generally deliberate on the reconcilement of enemies, on family alliances, on the appointment of chiefs, and finally on peace and war; conceiving that at no time the soul is more opened to sincerity, or warmed to heroism. These people, naturally void of artifice or disguise, disclose the most secret emotions of their hearts in the freedom of festivity. The minds of all being thus displayed without reserve, the subjects of their deliberation are again canvassed the next day; ¹³³ and each time has its advantages. They consult when unable to dissemble; they determine when not liable to mistake.

22. ¹²⁹ [They are relaxed and friendly with their guests] They generally sleep until late in the day and bathe as soon as they get up. They usually bathe in warm water, ¹³⁰ because the weather there is mostly cold. After bathing, they eat, each with a separate seat and table. ¹³¹ Then they go armed to attend to business, and just as often to drinking parties. They see no disgrace in drinking for days and nights without a break. Frequent drunken quarrels seldom end with insults alone, but more often lead to bloodshed. ¹³² At their feasts, they generally discuss settling feuds, forming family alliances, appointing chiefs, and finally, peace and war. They believe that at no other time are people more open and honest, or more inspired to heroic deeds. These people are naturally free of deceit or pretense. In the freedom of celebration, they reveal their hearts’ deepest feelings. Once everyone has spoken without reserve, they discuss the same matters again the next day. ¹³³ Each occasion has its advantages. They discuss matters when they cannot hide their thoughts. They make decisions when they are not likely to make mistakes.

23. Their drink is a liquor prepared from barley or wheat ¹³⁴ brought by fermentation to a certain resemblance of wine. Those who border on the Rhine also purchase wine. Their food is simple; wild fruits, fresh venison, ¹³⁵ or coagulated milk. ¹³⁶ They satisfy hunger without seeking the elegances and delicacies of the table. Their thirst for liquor is not quenched with equal moderation. If their propensity to drunkenness be gratified to the extent of their wishes, intemperance proves as effectual in subduing them as the force of arms. ¹³⁷

23. Their drink is made from barley or wheat ¹³⁴ fermented until it somewhat resembles wine. Those who live near the Rhine also buy wine. Their food is simple: wild fruits, fresh game, ¹³⁵ or curdled milk. ¹³⁶ They satisfy their hunger without seeking fine dining or delicacies. But they do not show the same moderation in satisfying their thirst for alcohol. If allowed to drink as much as they wish, drunkenness can subdue them as effectively as armed force. ¹³⁷

24. They have only one kind of public spectacle, which is exhibited in every company. Young men, who make it their diversion, dance naked amidst drawn swords and presented spears. Practice has conferred skill at this exercise; and skill has given grace; but they do not exhibit for hire or gain: the only reward of this pastime, though a hazardous one, is the pleasure of the spectators. What is extraordinary, they play at dice, when sober, as a serious business: and that with such a desperate venture of gain or loss, that, when everything else is gone, they set their liberties and persons on the last throw. The loser goes into voluntary servitude; and, though the youngest and strongest, patiently suffers himself to be bound and sold. ¹³⁸ Such is their obstinacy in a bad practice—they themselves call it honor. The slaves thus acquired are exchanged away in commerce, that the winner may get rid of the scandal of his victory.

24. They have only one kind of public entertainment, performed at every gathering. Young men dance naked among drawn swords and leveled spears for their own amusement. Practice has made them skillful, and skill has made them graceful. But they do not perform for pay or profit. Though dangerous, this pastime brings no reward beyond the spectators’ enjoyment. Strangely, they take dice seriously and play while sober. They risk so much on winning or losing that, when everything else is gone, they stake their freedom and themselves on the final throw. The loser willingly becomes a slave. Even if he is the youngest and strongest, he patiently allows himself to be bound and sold. ¹³⁸ Such is their stubborn commitment to a bad practice. They themselves call it honor. Slaves acquired this way are traded away so that the winner may escape the disgrace of his victory.

25. The rest of their slaves have not, like ours, particular employments in the family allotted them. Each is the master of a habitation and household of his own. The lord requires from him a certain quantity of grain, cattle, or cloth, as from a tenant; and so far only the subjection of the slave extends. ¹³⁹ His domestic offices are performed by his own wife and children. It is usual to scourge a slave, or punish him with chains or hard labor. They are sometimes killed by their masters; not through severity of chastisement, but in the heat of passion, like an enemy; with this difference, that it is done with impunity. ¹⁴⁰ Freedmen are little superior to slaves; seldom filling any important office in the family; never in the state, except in those tribes which are under regal government. ¹⁴¹ There, they rise above the free-born, and even the nobles: in the rest, the subordinate condition of the freedmen is a proof of freedom.

25. Their other slaves, unlike ours, are not assigned specific duties within the household. Each slave runs a home and household of his own. The master demands a fixed amount of grain, cattle, or cloth from him, as from a tenant. The slave's obligations go no further. ¹³⁹ His own wife and children perform his household duties. It is usual to whip a slave or punish him with chains or hard labor. Masters sometimes kill their slaves, not as a harsh punishment, but in a fit of anger, as with an enemy. The difference is that masters face no punishment for killing slaves. ¹⁴⁰ Freed slaves rank only slightly above slaves. They seldom hold any important household position and never hold public office, except in tribes ruled by kings. ¹⁴¹ In those tribes, freed slaves rise above the freeborn and even the nobles. In the other tribes, the lower status of freed slaves is proof of freedom.

26. Lending money upon interest, and increasing it by usury, ¹⁴² is unknown amongst them: and this ignorance more effectually prevents the practice than a prohibition would do. The lands are occupied by townships, ¹⁴³ in allotments proportional to the number of cultivators; and are afterwards parcelled out among the individuals of the district, in shares according to the rank and condition of each person. ¹⁴⁴ The wide extent of plain facilitates this partition. The arable lands are annually changed, and a part left fallow; nor do they attempt to make the most of the fertility and plenty of the soil, by their own industry in planting orchards, inclosing meadows, and watering gardens. Corn is the only product required from the earth: hence their year is not divided into so many seasons as ours; for, while they know and distinguish by name Winter, Spring, and Summer, they are unacquainted equally with the appellation and bounty of Autumn. ¹⁴⁵

26. Lending money at interest and increasing it through usury, ¹⁴² are unknown among them. This ignorance prevents the practice more effectively than a ban would. Townships occupy the land, ¹⁴³ in allotments based on the number of farmers. The land is then divided among individuals in the district, with shares based on each person’s rank and standing. ¹⁴⁴ The vast plains make this division easy. The fields under cultivation change each year, and some land is left fallow. Nor do they try to make full use of the soil’s fertility and abundance through their own work. They do not plant orchards, fence off meadows, or water gardens. Grain is the only crop they ask of the earth. Their year therefore has fewer seasons than ours. They recognize Winter, Spring, and Summer and have names for them. But they know neither the name nor the bounty of Autumn. ¹⁴⁵

27. Their funerals are without parade. ¹⁴⁶ The only circumstance to which they attend, is to burn the bodies of eminent persons with some particular kinds of wood. Neither vestments nor perfumes are heaped upon the pile: ¹⁴⁷ the arms of the deceased, and sometimes his horse, ¹⁴⁸ are given to the flames. The tomb is a mound of turf. They contemn the elaborate and costly honours of monumental structures, as mere burthens to the dead. They soon dismiss tears and lamentations; slowly, sorrow and regret. They think it the women's part to bewail their friends, the men's to remember them.

27. Their funerals are simple. ¹⁴⁶ Their only concern is to burn the bodies of prominent people with certain kinds of wood. Neither clothing nor perfumes are piled onto the funeral pyre: ¹⁴⁷ the dead man's weapons, and sometimes his horse, ¹⁴⁸ are burned with him. The grave is a mound of turf. They scorn elaborate and costly monuments as nothing more than burdens on the dead. Their tears and cries of grief soon end, but their sorrow and regret fade slowly. They consider it women's role to mourn their friends, and men's to remember them.

28. This is the sum of what I have been able to learn concerning the origin and manners of the Germans in general. I now proceed to mention those particulars in which they differ from each other; and likewise to relate what nations have migrated from Germany into Gaul. That great writer, the deified Julius, asserts that the Gauls were formerly the superior people; ¹⁴⁹ whence it is probable that some Gallic colonies passed over into Germany: for how small an obstacle would a river be to prevent any nation, as it increased in strength, from occupying or changing settlements as yet lying in common, and unappropriated by the power of monarchies! Accordingly, the tract betwixt the Hercynian forest and the rivers Rhine and Mayne was possessed by the Helvetii: ¹⁵⁰ and that beyond, by the Boii; ¹⁵¹ both Gallic tribes. The name of Boiemum still remains, a memorial of the ancient settlement, though its inhabitants are now changed. ¹⁵² But whether the Aravisci ¹⁵³ migrated into Pannonia from the Osi, ¹⁵⁴ a German nation; or the Osi into Germany from the Aravisci; the language, institutions, and manners of both being still the same, is a matter of uncertainty; for, in their pristine state of equal indigence and equal liberty, the same advantages and disadvantages were common to both sides of the river. The Treveri ¹⁵⁵ and Nervii ¹⁵⁶ are ambitious of being thought of German origin; as if the reputation of this descent would distinguish them from the Gauls, whom they resemble in person and effeminacy. The Vangiones, Triboci, and Nemetes, ¹⁵⁷ who inhabit the bank of the Rhine, are without doubt German tribes. Nor do the Ubii, ¹⁵⁸ although they have been thought worthy of being made a Roman colony, and are pleased in bearing the name of Agrippinenses from their founder, blush to acknowledge their origin from Germany; from whence they formerly migrated, and for their approved fidelity were settled on the bank of the Rhine, not that they might be guarded themselves, but that they might serve as a guard against invaders.

28. This sums up what I have learned about the origins and customs of the Germans as a whole. I now turn to the ways these peoples differ from one another. I will also describe the nations that have migrated from Germany into Gaul. That great writer, the deified Julius, states that the Gauls were once the stronger people. ¹⁴⁹ It is therefore likely that some Gallic colonies crossed into Germany. For how little could a river hinder a nation growing in strength from occupying land or moving to new settlements? Such lands were still open to all, with no kingdoms claiming them. Thus, the Helvetii occupied the land between the Hercynian forest and the rivers Rhine and Mayne. ¹⁵⁰ The Boii occupied the land beyond. ¹⁵¹ Both were Gallic tribes. The name Boiemum still survives as a reminder of the ancient settlement, though its inhabitants have now changed. ¹⁵² But it is uncertain whether the Aravisci ¹⁵³ migrated into Pannonia from the Osi, ¹⁵⁴ a German nation. The Osi may instead have migrated into Germany from the Aravisci. Both peoples still share the same language, institutions, and customs. For in their earliest days, both were equally poor and equally free. The same advantages and disadvantages existed on both sides of the river. The Treveri ¹⁵⁵ and Nervii ¹⁵⁶ are eager to be thought of as German in origin. They seem to think this ancestry would set them apart from the Gauls, whom they resemble in appearance and effeminacy. The Vangiones, Triboci, and Nemetes, ¹⁵⁷ who live along the Rhine, are undoubtedly German tribes. Nor are the Ubii, ¹⁵⁸ ashamed to acknowledge their German origins, although they have been judged worthy of becoming a Roman colony. They also take pleasure in the name Agrippinenses, derived from their founder. They migrated from Germany in earlier times. Because they had proved their loyalty, they were settled along the Rhine. The purpose was not to protect the Ubii themselves, but to have them guard against invaders.

29. Of all these people, the most famed for valor are the Batavi; whose territories comprise but a small part of the banks of the Rhine, but consist chiefly of an island within it. ¹⁵⁹ These were formerly a tribe of the Catti, who, on account of an intestine division, removed to their present settlements, in order to become a part of the Roman empire. They still retain this honor, together with a memorial of their ancient alliance; ¹⁶⁰ for they are neither insulted by taxes, nor oppressed by farmers of the revenue. Exempt from fiscal burthens and extraordinary contributions, and kept apart for military use alone, they are reserved, like a magazine of arms, for the purposes of war. The nation of the Mattiaci ¹⁶¹ is under a degree of subjection of the same kind: for the greatness of the Roman people has carried a reverence for the empire beyond the Rhine and the ancient limits. The Mattiaci, therefore, though occupying a settlement and borders ¹⁶² on the opposite side of the river, from sentiment and attachment act with us; resembling the Batavi in every respect, except that they are animated with a more vigorous spirit by the soil and air of their own country. ¹⁶³ I do not reckon among the people of Germany those who occupy the Decumate lands, ¹⁶⁴ although inhabiting between the Rhine and Danube. Some of the most fickle of the Gauls, rendered daring through indigence, seized upon this district of uncertain property. Afterwards, our boundary line being advanced, and a chain of fortified posts established, it became a skirt of the empire, and part of the Roman province. ¹⁶⁵

29. Of all these peoples, the Batavi are the most famous for courage. Their territory includes only a small stretch of the Rhine’s banks, but lies mainly on an island in the river. ¹⁵⁹ They were once a tribe of the Catti. But an internal conflict led them to move to their present lands to become part of the Roman empire. They still retain this honored position, along with a reminder of their ancient alliance. ¹⁶⁰ For they are neither humiliated by taxes nor oppressed by tax collectors. They are exempt from taxes and special levies, and set apart for military service alone. Like a storehouse of weapons, they are held in reserve for war. The nation of the Mattiaci ¹⁶¹ is subject to Rome on similar terms. For the greatness of the Roman people has spread respect for the empire beyond the Rhine and its ancient boundaries. The Mattiaci therefore occupy lands and border territory ¹⁶² on the opposite side of the river. Yet their sympathies and loyalty lead them to act with us. They resemble the Batavi in every respect, except that their native soil and climate give them a more vigorous spirit. ¹⁶³ I do not count the inhabitants of the Decumate lands ¹⁶⁴ among the peoples of Germany, although they live between the Rhine and Danube. Some of the most restless Gauls, made bold by poverty, seized this district, whose ownership was uncertain. Later, we advanced our boundary and established a chain of fortified posts. The district then became an outlying strip of the empire and part of the Roman province. ¹⁶⁵

30. Beyond these dwell the Catti, ¹⁶⁶ whose settlements, beginning from the Hercynian forest, are in a tract of country less open and marshy than those which overspread the other states of Germany; for it consists of a continued range of hills, which gradually become more scattered; and the Hercynian forest ¹⁶⁷ both accompanies and leaves behind, its Catti. This nation is distinguished by hardier frames, ¹⁶⁸ compactness of limb, fierceness of countenance, and superior vigor of mind. For Germans, they have a considerable share of understanding and sagacity; they choose able persons to command, and obey them when chosen; keep their ranks; seize opportunities; restrain impetuous motions; distribute properly the business of the day; intrench themselves against the night; account fortune dubious, and valor only certain; and, what is extremely rare, and only a consequence of discipline, depend more upon the general than the army. ¹⁶⁹ Their force consists entirely in infantry; who, besides their arms, are obliged to carry tools and provisions. Other nations appear to go to a battle; the Catti, to war. Excursions and casual encounters are rare amongst them. It is, indeed, peculiar to cavalry soon to obtain, and soon to yield, the victory. Speed borders upon timidity; slow movements are more akin to steady valor.

30. Beyond these peoples live the Catti, ¹⁶⁶ whose settlements begin at the Hercynian forest. Their country is less open and marshy than the lands occupied by the other states of Germany. Instead, it consists of a continuous range of hills that gradually become more scattered. The Hercynian forest ¹⁶⁷ runs alongside its Catti and then leaves them behind. This nation stands out for its hardier bodies, ¹⁶⁸ compact limbs, fierce faces, and greater mental vigor. For Germans, they show considerable understanding and good judgment. They choose capable commanders and obey them once chosen. They hold their ranks, seize opportunities, and restrain rash impulses. They organize the day's tasks properly and dig defenses for the night. They regard luck as uncertain and courage alone as reliable. And, something extremely rare and possible only through discipline, they rely more on their general than on their army. ¹⁶⁹ Their force consists entirely of infantry, who must carry tools and supplies as well as their weapons. Other nations seem to go into battle, but the Catti go to war. Raids and chance encounters are rare among them. Cavalry, by contrast, characteristically wins victory quickly and gives it up just as quickly. Speed borders on fearfulness, while slow movements are closer to steady courage.

31. A custom followed among the other German nations only by a few individuals, of more daring spirit than the rest, is adopted by general consent among the Catti. From the time they arrive at years of maturity they let their hair and beard grow; ¹⁷⁰ and do not divest themselves of this votive badge, the promise of valor, till they have slain an enemy. Over blood and spoils they unveil the countenance, and proclaim that they have at length paid the debt of existence, and have proved themselves worthy of their country and parents. The cowardly and effeminate continue in their squalid disguise. The bravest among them wear also an iron ring ¹⁷¹ (a mark of ignominy in that nation) as a kind of chain, till they have released themselves by the slaughter of a foe. Many of the Catti assume this distinction, and grow hoary under the mark, conspicuous both to foes and friends. By these, in every engagement, the attack is begun: they compose the front line, presenting a new spectacle of terror. Even in peace they do not relax the sternness of their aspect. They have no house, land, or domestic cares: they are maintained by whomsoever they visit: lavish of another's property, regardless of their own; till the debility of age renders them unequal to such a rigid course of military virtue. ¹⁷²

31. Among other German nations, only a few men, bolder than the rest, follow a custom accepted by all the Catti. Once they reach adulthood, they let their hair and beard grow. ¹⁷⁰ They keep this sign of their vow, a pledge of courage, until they have killed an enemy. Over the blood and spoils, they uncover their faces. They declare that they have finally repaid the debt of life and proved worthy of their country and parents. The cowardly and unmanly keep their unkempt appearance. The bravest also wear an iron ring ¹⁷¹ as a kind of chain until they free themselves by killing an enemy. Among their people, such a ring is a mark of shame. Many of the Catti take on this distinction and grow gray still wearing it, standing out to enemies and friends alike. These men begin the attack in every battle. They form the front line, presenting a fresh sight of terror. Even in peace, they keep their stern appearance. They have no house, land, or household responsibilities. Whoever they visit supports them. They spend other people's property freely and pay no attention to their own. They live this way until the weakness of old age leaves them unable to sustain such a harsh military discipline. ¹⁷²

32. Next to the Catti, on the banks of the Rhine, where, now settled in its channel, it is become a sufficient boundary, dwell the Usipii and Tencteri. ¹⁷³ The latter people, in addition to the usual military reputation, are famed for the discipline of their cavalry; nor is the infantry of the Catti in higher estimation than the horse of the Tencteri. Their ancestors established it, and are imitated by posterity. Horsemanship is the sport of their children, the point of emulation of their youth, and the exercise in which they persevere to old age. Horses are bequeathed along with the domestics, the household gods, and the rights of inheritance: they do not, however, like other things, go to the eldest son, but to the bravest and most warlike.

32. Next to the Catti live the Usipii and Tencteri, on the banks of the Rhine. Here the river has settled into its channel and forms an adequate boundary. ¹⁷³ The Tencteri have the usual reputation for military skill, but are also famous for their disciplined cavalry. The infantry of the Catti is no more highly regarded than the cavalry of the Tencteri. Their ancestors established this cavalry tradition, and later generations follow their example. Their children ride for sport, their young people compete in horsemanship, and they keep riding into old age. Horses are passed down along with household servants, household gods, and inheritance rights. But unlike other possessions, horses do not go to the eldest son, but to the bravest and most warlike.

33. Contiguous to the Tencteri were formerly the Bructeri; ¹⁷⁴ but report now says that the Chamavi and Angrivarii, ¹⁷⁵ migrating into their country, have expelled and entirely extirpated them, ¹⁷⁶ with the concurrence of the neighboring nations, induced either by hatred of their arrogance, ¹⁷⁷ love of plunder, or the favor of the gods towards the Romans. For they even gratified us with the spectacle of a battle, in which above sixty thousand Germans were slain, not by Roman arms, but, what was still grander, by mutual hostilities, as it were for our pleasure and entertainment. ¹⁷⁸ May the nations retain and perpetuate, if not an affection for us, at least an animosity against each other! since, while the fate of the empire is thus urgent, ¹⁷⁹ fortune can bestow no higher benefit upon us, than the discord of our enemies.

33. The Bructeri formerly lived next to the Tencteri. ¹⁷⁴ But reports now say that the Chamavi and Angrivarii ¹⁷⁵ have moved into Bructeri territory, driving them out and completely destroying them. ¹⁷⁶ The neighboring nations joined in, either from hatred of the Bructeri’s arrogance, ¹⁷⁷ a desire for plunder, or the gods’ favor toward the Romans. For these nations even pleased us with the spectacle of a battle in which more than sixty thousand Germans died. They fell not to Roman weapons but, more gloriously still, in fighting among themselves, as if for our pleasure and entertainment. ¹⁷⁸ May these nations keep alive forever, if not affection for us, at least hatred for one another! For while the empire’s fate is so pressing, ¹⁷⁹ fortune can give us no greater gift than discord among our enemies.

34. Contiguous to the Angrivarii and Chamavi backwards lie the Dulgibini, Chasauri, ¹⁸⁰ and other nations less known. ¹⁸¹ In front, the Frisii ¹⁸² succeed; who are distinguished by the appellations of Greater and Lesser, from their proportional power. The settlements of both stretch along the border of the Rhine to the ocean; and include, besides, vast lakes, ¹⁸³ which have been navigated by Roman fleets. We have even explored the ocean itself on that side; and fame reports that columns of Hercules ¹⁸⁴ are still remaining on that coast; whether it be that Hercules was ever there in reality, or that whatever great and magnificent is anywhere met with is, by common consent, ascribed to his renowned name. The attempt of Drusus Germanicus ¹⁸⁵ to make discoveries in these parts was sufficiently daring; but the ocean opposed any further inquiry into itself and Hercules. After a while no one renewed the attempt; and it was thought more pious and reverential to believe the actions of the gods, than to investigate them.

34. Behind the Angrivarii and Chamavi, and bordering them, lie the Dulgibini, Chasauri, ¹⁸⁰ and other less-known nations. ¹⁸¹ In front lie the Frisii, ¹⁸² called Greater and Lesser according to their relative power. Both groups have settlements stretching along the Rhine’s border to the ocean. Their lands also include vast lakes, ¹⁸³ which Roman fleets have sailed. We have even explored the ocean itself on that side. Reports say that columns of Hercules ¹⁸⁴ still stand on that coast. Perhaps Hercules really went there. Or perhaps people everywhere agree to credit his famous name with anything great and magnificent they find. Drusus Germanicus ¹⁸⁵ made a bold enough attempt to explore these regions. But the ocean prevented any further investigation of its waters and Hercules. After a while, no one tried again. People thought believing in the deeds of the gods showed greater piety and reverence than investigating them.

35. Hitherto we have traced the western side of Germany. It turns from thence with a vast sweep to the north: and first occurs the country of the Chauci, ¹⁸⁶ which, though it begins immediately from Frisia, and occupies part of the seashore, yet stretches so far as to border on all the nations before mentioned, till it winds round so as to meet the territories of the Catti. This immense tract is not only possessed, but filled by the Chauci; a people the noblest of the Germans, who choose to maintain their greatness by justice rather than violence. Without ambition, without ungoverned desires, quiet and retired, they provoke no wars, they are guilty of no rapine or plunder; and it is a principal proof of their power and bravery, that the superiority they possess has not been acquired by unjust means. Yet all have arms in readiness; ¹⁸⁷ and, if necessary, an army is soon raised: for they abound in men and horses, and maintain their military reputation even in inaction.

35. So far we have traced the western side of Germany. From there, Germany curves north in a vast sweep. First comes the country of the Chauci, ¹⁸⁶ which begins just beyond Frisia and includes part of the coast. Yet their country reaches far enough to border all the peoples already mentioned, curving around to meet the Catti’s territories. The Chauci not only possess this vast region but fill it. They are the noblest of the Germans, choosing to maintain their greatness through justice rather than violence. Free from ambition and uncontrolled desires, they live quietly and keep to themselves. They provoke no wars and commit no raids or plunder. A chief sign of their power and courage is that their superior position was not gained through injustice. Yet all keep weapons ready. ¹⁸⁷ If necessary, they can quickly raise an army, because they have abundant men and horses. Even when they are not fighting, they maintain their military reputation.

36. Bordering on the Chauci and Catti are the Cherusci; ¹⁸⁸ who, for want of an enemy, long cherished a too lasting and enfeebling peace: a state more flattering than secure; since the repose enjoyed amidst ambitious and powerful neighbors is treacherous; and when an appeal is made to the sword, moderation and probity are names appropriated by the victors. Thus, the Cherusci, who formerly bore the titles of just and upright, are now charged with cowardice and folly; and the good fortune of the Catti, who subdued them, has grown into wisdom. The ruin of the Cherusci involved that of the Fosi, ¹⁸⁹ a neighboring tribe, equal partakers of their adversity, although they had enjoyed an inferior share of their prosperity.

36. The Cherusci border on the Chauci and Catti. ¹⁸⁸ With no enemy to face, the Cherusci long cherished a peace that lasted too long and weakened them. This peace was more comforting than secure, because peace among ambitious and powerful neighbors is deceptive. And when disputes are settled by the sword, the victors claim moderation and honesty for themselves. Thus the Cherusci, once called just and upright, are now accused of cowardice and folly. Meanwhile, the good fortune of the Catti, who conquered them, has come to be seen as wisdom. The downfall of the Cherusci also brought down the Fosi, ¹⁸⁹ a neighboring tribe. The Fosi shared equally in their suffering, although they had enjoyed a smaller share of their prosperity.

37. In the same quarter of Germany, adjacent to the ocean, dwell the Cimbri; ¹⁹¹ a small ¹⁹² state at present, but great in renown. ¹⁹³ Of their past grandeur extensive vestiges still remain, in encampments and lines on either shore, ¹⁹⁴ from the compass of which the strength and numbers of the nation may still be computed, and credit derived to the account of so prodigious an army. It was in the 640th year of Rome that the arms of the Cimbri were first heard of, under the consulate of Caecilius Metellus and Papirius Carbo; from which era to the second consulate of the emperor Trajan ¹⁹⁵ is a period of nearly 210 years. So long has Germany withstood the arms of Rome. During this long interval many mutual wounds have been inflicted. Not the Samnite, the Carthaginian, Spain, Gaul, or Parthia, have given more frequent alarms; for the liberty of the Germans is more vigorous than the monarchy of the Arsacidae. What has the East, which has itself lost Pacorus, and suffered an overthrow from Ventidius, ¹⁹⁶ to boast against us, but the slaughter of Crassus? But the Germans, by the defeat or capture of Carbo, ¹⁹⁷ Cassius, ¹⁹⁸ Scaurus Aurelius, ¹⁹⁹ Servilius Caepio, and Cneius Manlius, ²⁰⁰ deprived the Roman people of five consular armies; ²⁰¹ and afterwards took from Augustus himself Varus with three legions. ²⁰² Nor did Caius Marius ²⁰³ in Italy, the deified Julius in Gaul, or Drusus, Nero, or Germanicus ²⁰⁴ in their own country, defeat then without loss. The subsequent mighty threats of Caligula terminated in ridicule. Then succeeded tranquillity; till, seizing the occasion of our discords and civil wars, they forced the winter-quarters of the legions, ²⁰⁵ and even aimed at the possession of Gaul; and, again expelled thence, they have in latter times been rather triumphed over ²⁰⁶ than vanquished.

37. In the same part of Germany, beside the ocean, live the Cimbri. ¹⁹¹ They are now a small ¹⁹² state, but their fame is great. ¹⁹³ Extensive traces of their former greatness remain in camps and defensive lines on either shore. ¹⁹⁴ The size of these remains still allows us to estimate the nation's strength and numbers. It also lends credibility to accounts of so enormous an army. Rome first heard of the Cimbri's military power in its 640th year, when Caecilius Metellus and Papirius Carbo were consuls. From then to the emperor Trajan's second consulship ¹⁹⁵ is nearly 210 years. For so long has Germany resisted Rome's armies. During this long period, both sides have inflicted many wounds. Neither the Samnites, the Carthaginians, Spain, Gaul, nor Parthia have caused more frequent alarm. For German freedom has greater strength than the monarchy of the Arsacidae. What can the East boast of against us except the slaughter of Crassus? The East itself lost Pacorus and suffered defeat at the hands of Ventidius. ¹⁹⁶ But the Germans defeated or captured Carbo, ¹⁹⁷ Cassius, ¹⁹⁸ Scaurus Aurelius, ¹⁹⁹ Servilius Caepio, and Cneius Manlius. ²⁰⁰ In doing so, they deprived the Roman people of five consular armies. ²⁰¹ Later, they robbed Augustus himself of Varus and three legions. ²⁰² Nor did Caius Marius ²⁰³ in Italy or the deified Julius in Gaul defeat the Germans without losses. Neither did Drusus, Nero, or Germanicus ²⁰⁴ in the Germans' own country. Caligula's mighty threats that followed ended in ridicule. Then came peace, until the Germans took advantage of our internal conflicts and civil wars. They stormed the legions' winter quarters ²⁰⁵ and even sought control of Gaul. The Germans were driven out of Gaul again. But in recent times, they have been celebrated in Roman triumphs ²⁰⁶ rather than actually defeated.

38. We have now to speak of the Suevi; ²⁰⁷ who do not compose a single state, like the Catti or Tencteri, but occupy the greatest part of Germany, and are still distributed into different names and nations, although all hearing the common appellation of Suevi. It is a characteristic of this people to turn their hair sideways, and tie it beneath the poll in a knot. By this mark the Suevi are distinguished from the rest of the Germans; and the freemen of the Suevi from the slaves. ²⁰⁸ Among other nations, this mode, either on account of some relationship with the Suevi, or from the usual propensity to imitation, is sometimes adopted; but rarely, and only during the period of youth. The Suevi, even till they are hoary, continue to have their hair growing stiffly backwards, and often it is fastened on the very crown of the head. The chiefs dress it with still greater care: and in this respect they study ornament, though of an undebasing kind. For their design is not to make love, or inspire it; they decorate themselves in this manner as they proceed to war, in order to seem taller and more terrible; and dress for the eyes of their enemies.

38. We now turn to the Suevi. ²⁰⁷ Unlike the Catti or Tencteri, they do not form a single state. Instead, they occupy the largest part of Germany and remain divided into nations with different names. Yet all share the common name of Suevi. Their distinctive custom is to sweep their hair sideways and tie it in a knot below the back of the head. This hairstyle distinguishes the Suevi from the other Germans, and free Suevi from slaves. ²⁰⁸ Among other nations, some adopt this style because of a relationship with the Suevi or the usual tendency to imitate others. But they do so rarely, and only while young. The Suevi keep their hair swept stiffly backward even when they turn gray. Often, they fasten it on the very top of the head. The chiefs arrange their hair with still greater care. In this respect, they seek adornment, though not of a degrading kind. Their aim is neither to court others nor to attract love. They decorate themselves this way when going to war, to look taller and more terrifying. They dress for the eyes of their enemies.

39. The Semnones ²⁰⁹ assert themselves to be the most ancient and noble of the Suevi; and their pretensions are confirmed by religion. At a stated time, all the people of the same lineage assemble by their delegates in a wood, consecrated by the auguries of their forefathers and ancient terror, and there by the public slaughter of a human victim celebrate the horrid origin of their barbarous rites. Another kind of reverence is paid to the grove. No person enters it without being bound with a chain, as an acknowledgment of his inferior nature, and the power of the deity residing there. If he accidentally fall, it is not lawful for him to be lifted or to rise up; they roll themselves out along the ground. The whole of their superstition has this import: that from this spot the nation derives its origin; that here is the residence of the Deity, the Governor of all, and that everything else is subject and subordinate to him. These opinions receive additional authority from the power of the Semnones, who inhabit a hundred cantons, and, from the great body they compose, consider themselves as the head of the Suevi.

39. The Semnones ²⁰⁹ claim to be the oldest and noblest of the Suevi, and their religion supports these claims. At a set time, all peoples of the same ancestry send representatives to gather in a wood. Their ancestors’ omens and an ancient sense of dread have made this wood sacred. There, they publicly slaughter a human victim to celebrate the terrible origin of their barbarous rites. The grove receives another form of reverence. No one enters without being bound with a chain, acknowledging their own inferior nature and the resident deity’s power. If anyone accidentally falls, they may not be helped up or rise on their own. They must roll along the ground to leave the grove. Their whole superstition means this: their nation originated in this place. Here lives the Deity, the ruler of all, and everything else is subject and subordinate to him. These beliefs gain further authority from the power of the Semnones, who occupy a hundred districts. Because of their great numbers, they consider themselves the foremost people among the Suevi.

40. The Langobardi, ²¹⁰ on the other hand, are ennobled by, the smallness of their numbers; since though surrounded by many powerful nations, they derive security, not from obsequiousness, but from their martial enterprise. The neighboring Reudigni, ²¹¹ and the Avions, ²¹² Angli, ²¹³ Varini, Eudoses, Suardones, and Nuithones, ²¹⁴ are defended by rivers or forests. Nothing remarkable occurs in any of these; except that they unite in the worship of Hertha, ²¹⁵ or Mother Earth; and suppose her to interfere in the affairs of men, and to visit the different nations. In an island ²¹⁶ of the ocean stands a sacred and unviolated grove, in which is a consecrated chariot, covered with a veil, which the priest alone is permitted to touch. He becomes conscious of the entrance of the goddess into this secret recess; and with profound veneration attends the vehicle, which is drawn by yoked cows. At this season, ²¹⁷ all is joy; and every place which the goddess deigns to visit is a scene of festivity. No wars are undertaken; arms are untouched; and every hostile weapon is shut up. Peace abroad and at home are then only known; then only loved; till at length the same priest reconducts the goddess, satiated with mortal intercourse, to her temple. ²¹⁸ The chariot, with its curtain, and, if we may believe it, the goddess herself, then undergo ablution in a secret lake. This office is performed by slaves, whom the same lake instantly swallows up. Hence proceeds a mysterious horror; and a holy ignorance of what that can be, which is beheld only by those who are about to perish. This part of the Suevian nation extends to the most remote recesses of Germany.

40. The Langobardi, ²¹⁰ on the other hand, gain distinction from their small numbers. Although surrounded by many powerful nations, they find safety not through submission, but through their fighting spirit. The neighboring Reudigni, ²¹¹ and the Avions, ²¹² Angli, ²¹³ Varini, Eudoses, Suardones, and Nuithones, ²¹⁴ are protected by rivers or forests. None of these peoples has anything remarkable about them, except that all worship Hertha, ²¹⁵ or Mother Earth. They believe she intervenes in human affairs and visits the different nations. On an island ²¹⁶ in the ocean stands a sacred grove that no one has violated. Within the grove is a consecrated chariot, covered with a veil, which only the priest may touch. The priest senses when the goddess enters this hidden place. With deep reverence, he accompanies the chariot, drawn by cows yoked together. During this season, ²¹⁷ all is joy. Every place the goddess chooses to visit becomes a scene of celebration. No wars are begun, weapons remain untouched, and every weapon of war is locked away. Only then do people know peace at home and abroad, and only then do they love it. At last, when the goddess has had her fill of human company, the same priest returns her to her temple. ²¹⁸ The chariot and its curtain are then washed in a hidden lake, along with, if we can believe it, the goddess herself. Slaves perform this task, and the same lake immediately swallows them. This gives rise to a mysterious terror and a sacred ignorance. What is seen only by those about to die remains unknown. This part of the Suevian nation extends into the most remote regions of Germany.

41. If we now follow the course of the Danube, as we before did that of the Rhine, we first meet with the Hermunduri; ²¹⁹ a people faithful to the Romans, ²²⁰ and on that account the only Germans who are admitted to commerce, not on the bank alone, but within our territories, and in the flourishing colony ²²¹ established in the province of Rhaetia. They pass and repass at pleasure, without being attended by a guard; and while we exhibit to other nations our arms and camps alone, to these we lay open our houses and country seats, which they behold without coveting. In the country of the Hermunduri rises the Elbe; ²²² a river formerly celebrated and known among us, now only heard of by name.

41. If we now follow the Danube, as we previously followed the Rhine, we first encounter the Hermunduri. ²¹⁹ These people are loyal to the Romans. ²²⁰ For that reason, they alone among the Germans are allowed to trade not just along the riverbank, but within our territory. They can even trade in the thriving colony ²²¹ established in the province of Rhaetia. They come and go freely, without a guard accompanying them. While we show other nations only our weapons and camps, we open our homes and country estates to the Hermunduri. They view these places without wanting to possess them. The Elbe rises in the country of the Hermunduri. ²²² This river was once famous and familiar to us, but now we know it only by name.

42. Contiguous to the Hermunduri are the Narisci; ²²³ and next to them, the Marcomanni ²²⁴ and Quadi. ²²⁵ Of these, the Marcomanni are the most powerful and renowned; and have even acquired the country which they inhabit, by their valor in expelling the Boii. ²²⁶ Nor are the Narisci and Quadi inferior in bravery; ²²⁷ and this is, as it were, the van of Germany as far as it is bordered by the Danube. Within our memory the Marcomanni and Quadi were governed by kings of their own nation, of the noble line of Maroboduus ²²⁸ and Tudrus. They now submit even to foreigners; but all the power of their kings depends upon the authority of the Romans. ²²⁹ We seldom assist them with our arms, but frequently with our money; nor are they the less potent on that account.

42. The Narisci border the Hermunduri. ²²³ Next to the Narisci are the Marcomanni ²²⁴ and Quadi. ²²⁵ Of these peoples, the Marcomanni are the most powerful and famous. They even won the land they now inhabit through their bravery in driving out the Boii. ²²⁶ The Narisci and Quadi are no less brave. ²²⁷ These peoples form, so to speak, Germany’s front line along its border with the Danube. Within living memory, the Marcomanni and Quadi were ruled by kings from their own peoples. These kings came from the noble families of Maroboduus ²²⁸ and Tudrus. Now these peoples even accept foreign rulers, but all their kings’ power depends on Roman authority. ²²⁹ We seldom support these kings with military force, but often with money. Yet their power is no less great for that.

43. Behind these are the Marsigni, ²³⁰ Gothini, ²³¹ Osi, ²³² and Burrii, ²³³ who close the rear of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Of these, the Marsigni and Burrii in language ²³⁴ and dress resemble the Suevi. The Gothini and Osi prove themselves not to be Germans; the first, by their use of the Gallic, the second, of the Pannonian tongue; and both, by their submitting to pay tribute: which is levied on them, as aliens, partly by the Sarmatians, partly by the Quadi. The Gothini, to their additional disgrace, work iron mines. ²³⁵ All these people inhabit but a small proportion of champaign country; their settlements are chiefly amongst forests, and on the sides and summits of mountains; for a continued ridge of mountains ²³⁶ separates Suevia from various remoter tribes. Of these, the Lygian ²³⁷ is the most extensive, and diffuses its name through several communities. It will be sufficient to name the most powerful of them—the Arii, Helvecones, Manimi, Elysii, and Naharvali. ²³⁸ In the country of the latter is a grove, consecrated to religious rites of great antiquity. A priest presides over them, dressed in woman's apparel; but the gods worshipped there are said, according to the Roman interpretation, to be Castor and Pollux. Their attributes are the same; their name, Alcis. ²³⁹ No images, indeed, or vestiges of foreign superstition, appear in their worship; but they are revered under the character of young men and brothers. The Arii, fierce beyond the superiority of strength they possess over the other just enumerated people, improve their natural ferocity of aspect by artificial helps. Their shields are black; their bodies painted: ²⁴⁰ they choose the darkest nights for an attack; and strike terror by the funereal gloom of their sable bands—no enemy being able to sustain their singular, and, as it were, infernal appearance; since in every combat the eyes are the first part subdued. Beyond the Lygii are the Gothones, ²⁴¹ who live under a monarchy, somewhat more strict than that of the other German nations, yet not to a degree incompatible with liberty. Adjoining to these are the Rugii ²⁴² and Lemovii, ²⁴³ situated on the sea-coast—all these tribes are distinguished by round shields, short swords, and submission to regal authority.

43. Behind these are the Marsigni, ²³⁰ Gothini, ²³¹ Osi, ²³² and Burrii, ²³³ who guard the rear of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Of these, the Marsigni and Burrii resemble the Suevi in language ²³⁴ and dress. The Gothini and Osi show that they are not Germans through their languages. The Gothini speak Gallic, and the Osi speak Pannonian. Both peoples also show this by submitting to tribute. As foreigners, they pay tribute partly to the Sarmatians and partly to the Quadi. To their further disgrace, the Gothini work in iron mines. ²³⁵ All these peoples occupy only a small amount of open, level country. Their settlements are mostly among forests and on mountainsides and summits. A continuous mountain range ²³⁶ separates Suevia from various more distant tribes. Of these, the Lygian ²³⁷ people are the most widespread, and several communities share their name. It is enough to name the most powerful: the Arii, Helvecones, Manimi, Elysii, and Naharvali. ²³⁸ In the country of the Naharvali is a grove dedicated to religious rites of great antiquity. A priest dressed in women's clothing presides over these rites. According to the Roman interpretation, the gods worshipped there are said to be Castor and Pollux. Their attributes are the same, and their name is Alcis. ²³⁹ Their worship contains no images or traces of foreign religious practices. But the gods are revered as young men and brothers. The Arii surpass the other peoples just listed in strength, and even more in fierceness. They use artificial means to make their naturally fierce appearance still more terrifying. Their shields are black, and their bodies are painted. ²⁴⁰ They choose the darkest nights to attack. Their black-clad bands spread terror with their deathlike gloom. No enemy can withstand their strange, almost hellish appearance, since in every battle the eyes are the first to surrender. Beyond the Lygii are the Gothones, ²⁴¹ who live under a monarchy. Their kings rule somewhat more strictly than those of other German nations, but not so strictly as to prevent freedom. Next to the Gothones, along the coast, are the Rugii ²⁴² and Lemovii. ²⁴³ All these tribes are distinguished by round shields, short swords, and obedience to kings.

44. Next occur the communities of the Suiones, ²⁴⁴ seated in the very Ocean, ²⁴⁵ who, besides their strength in men and arms, also possess a naval force. ²⁴⁶ The form of their vessels differs from ours in having a prow at each end, ²⁴⁷ so that they are always ready to advance. They make no use of sails, nor have regular benches of oars at the sides: they row, as is practised in some rivers, without order, sometimes on one side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires. These people honor wealth; ²⁴⁸ for which reason they are subject to monarchical government, without any limitations, ²⁴⁹ or precarious conditions of allegiance. Nor are arms allowed to be kept promiscuously, as among the other German nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper, and he, too, a slave. The pretext is, that the Ocean defends them from any sudden incursions; and men unemployed, with arms in their hands, readily become licentious. In fact, it is for the king's interest not to entrust a noble, a freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the custody of arms.

44. Next come the communities of the Suiones, ²⁴⁴ who live in the Ocean itself. ²⁴⁵ Besides their strength in men and weapons, they also have a navy. ²⁴⁶ Their ships differ from ours by having a prow at each end, ²⁴⁷ so they are always ready to move forward. They use no sails and have no fixed rows of oars along the sides. As on some rivers, they row without a set arrangement, sometimes on one side, sometimes on the other, as needed. These people honor wealth. ²⁴⁸ For this reason, they live under a king whose power has no limits, ²⁴⁹ and their allegiance has no uncertain conditions. Nor can everyone keep weapons, as among the other German nations. Instead, the weapons are entrusted to a keeper, who is himself a slave. The excuse is that the Ocean protects them from sudden attacks. Also, idle men with weapons in their hands easily become lawless. In fact, the king's interests are best served by keeping weapons out of the custody of nobles, freemen, and even freed slaves.

45. Beyond the Suiones is another sea, sluggish and almost stagnant, ²⁵⁰ by which the whole globe is imagined to be girt and enclosed, from this circumstance, that the last light of the setting sun continues so vivid till its rising, as to obscure the stars. ²⁵¹ Popular belief adds, that the sound of his emerging ²⁵² from the ocean is also heard; and the forms of deities, ²⁵³ with the rays beaming from his head, are beheld. Only thus far, report says truly, does nature extend. ²⁵⁴ On the right shore of the Suevic sea ²⁵⁵ dwell the tribes of the Aestii, ²⁵⁶ whose dress and customs are the same with those of the Suevi, but their language more resembles the British. ²⁵⁷ They worship the mother of the gods; ²⁵⁸ and as the symbol of their superstition, they carry about them the figures of wild boars. ²⁵⁹ This serves them in place of armor and every other defence: it renders the votary of the goddess safe even in the midst of foes. Their weapons are chiefly clubs, iron being little used among them. They cultivate corn and other fruits of the earth with more industry than German indolence commonly exerts. ²⁶⁰ They even explore the sea; and are the only people who gather amber, which by them is called Glese, ²⁶¹ and is collected among the shallows and upon the shore. ²⁶² With the usual indifference of barbarians, they have not inquired or ascertained from what natural object or by what means it is produced. It long lay disregarded ²⁶³ amidst other things thrown up by the sea, till our luxury ²⁶⁴ gave it a name. Useless to them, they gather it in the rough; bring it unwrought; and wonder at the price they receive. It would appear, however, to be an exudation from certain trees; since reptiles, and even winged animals, are often seen shining through it, which, entangled in it while in a liquid state, became enclosed as it hardened. ²⁶⁵ I should therefore imagine that, as the luxuriant woods and groves in the secret recesses of the East exude frankincense and balsam, so there are the same in the islands and continents of the West; which, acted upon by the near rays of the sun, drop their liquid juices into the subjacent sea, whence, by the force of tempests, they are thrown out upon the opposite coasts. If the nature of amber be examined by the application of fire, it kindles like a torch, with a thick and odorous flame; and presently resolves into a glutinous matter resembling pitch or resin. The several communities of the Sitones ²⁶⁶ succeed those of the Suiones; to whom they are similar in other respects, but differ in submitting to a female reign; so far have they degenerated, not only from liberty, but even from slavery. Here Suevia terminates.

45. Beyond the Suiones lies another sea, sluggish and almost stagnant. ²⁵⁰ People imagine that this sea surrounds and encloses the whole globe for the following reason. The last light of the setting sun stays so bright until sunrise that it hides the stars. ²⁵¹ Popular belief adds that the sound of the sun rising ²⁵² from the ocean can also be heard. People also claim to see the forms of deities, ²⁵³ with rays shining from the sun’s head. Only this far, as report truly says, does nature extend. ²⁵⁴ On the right shore of the Suevic sea ²⁵⁵ live the tribes of the Aestii. ²⁵⁶ Their dress and customs are the same as those of the Suevi, but their language more closely resembles British. ²⁵⁷ They worship the mother of the gods. ²⁵⁸ As a symbol of their superstition, they carry figures of wild boars. ²⁵⁹ These figures take the place of armor and every other defense. They keep the goddess’s worshipper safe even among enemies. Their weapons are mainly clubs, since they make little use of iron. They grow grain and other crops more diligently than German laziness usually allows. ²⁶⁰ They even search the sea. They are the only people who gather amber, which they call Glese. ²⁶¹ They collect it in the shallows and along the shore. ²⁶² With the usual indifference of barbarians, they have neither investigated nor established what natural substance produces amber, or how. Amber long lay unnoticed ²⁶³ among other things washed up by the sea, until our luxury ²⁶⁴ gave it a name. Amber is useless to them. They gather it raw, bring it unworked, and marvel at the price they receive. Amber would seem, however, to be a substance secreted by certain trees. Reptiles and even winged creatures can often be seen through it. These creatures became trapped while the amber was liquid and were enclosed as it hardened. ²⁶⁵ I would therefore imagine that the islands and mainlands of the West have trees like those in the East. In the East’s hidden regions, lush woods and groves release frankincense and balsam. Likewise, the nearby rays of the sun cause the western trees to drip their liquid sap into the sea below. Storms then throw the sap onto the opposite shores. If amber is tested with fire, it catches like a torch, burning with a thick, strong-smelling flame. It soon dissolves into a sticky substance resembling pitch or resin. The various communities of the Sitones ²⁶⁶ lie beyond those of the Suiones. They resemble the Suiones in other respects, but differ in submitting to a woman’s rule. So far have they sunk, not only below freedom, but even below slavery. Here Suevia ends.

46. I am in doubt whether to reckon the Peucini, Venedi, and Fenni among the Germans or Sarmatians; ²⁶⁷ although the Peucini, ²⁶⁸ who are by some called Bastarnae, agree with the Germans in language, apparel, and habitations. ²⁶⁹ All of them live in filth and laziness. The intermarriages of their chiefs with the Sarmatians have debased them by a mixture of the manners of that people. ²⁷⁰ The Venedi have drawn much from this source; ²⁷¹ for they overrun in their predatory excursions all the woody and mountainous tracts between the Peucini and Fenni. Yet even these are rather to be referred to the Germans, since they build houses, carry shields, and travel with speed on foot; in all which particulars they totally differ from the Sarmatians, who pass their time in wagons and on horseback. ²⁷² The Fenni ²⁷³ live in a state of amazing savageness and squalid poverty. They are destitute of arms, horses, and settled abodes: their food is herbs; ²⁷⁴ their clothing, skins; their bed, the ground. Their only dependence is on their arrows, which, for want of iron, are headed with bone; ²⁷⁵ and the chase is the support of the women as well as the men; the former accompany the latter in the pursuit, and claim a share of the prey. Nor do they provide any other shelter for their infants from wild beasts and storms, than a covering of branches twisted together. This is the resort of youth; this is the receptacle of old age. Yet even this way of life is in their estimation happier than groaning over the plough; toiling in the erection of houses; subjecting their own fortunes and those of others to the agitations of alternate hope and fear. Secure against men, secure against the gods, they have attained the most difficult point, not to need even a wish.

46. I am unsure whether to count the Peucini, Venedi, and Fenni among the Germans or Sarmatians. ²⁶⁷ Yet the Peucini, ²⁶⁸ whom some call Bastarnae, resemble the Germans in language, clothing, and homes. ²⁶⁹ All of them live in filth and idleness. Their chiefs have married Sarmatians, and adopting some Sarmatian customs has degraded them. ²⁷⁰ The Venedi have adopted much from the same source. ²⁷¹ For they raid all the wooded and mountainous regions between the Peucini and Fenni. Yet even the Venedi should be counted as Germans, since they build houses, carry shields, and move quickly on foot. In all these ways, they differ completely from the Sarmatians, who spend their time in wagons and on horseback. ²⁷² The Fenni ²⁷³ live in astonishing savagery and wretched poverty. They have no weapons, horses, or permanent homes. They eat plants, ²⁷⁴ wear skins, and sleep on the ground. They rely entirely on their arrows, tipped with bone because they lack iron. ²⁷⁵ Hunting supports women as well as men. The women join the men in the hunt and claim a share of the kill. They give their infants no shelter from wild beasts and storms except a covering of woven branches. The young take refuge there, and the old find shelter there too. Yet they consider even this life happier than groaning over the plow or laboring to build houses. They prefer it to exposing their own fortunes and those of others to alternating hope and fear. Safe from men and safe from the gods, they have achieved the hardest thing of all: having nothing even to wish for.

All our further accounts are intermixed with fable; as, that the Hellusii and Oxionae ²⁷⁶ have human faces, with the bodies and limbs of wild beasts. These unauthenticated reports I shall leave untouched. ²⁷⁷

All our further accounts are mixed with myths. For example, the Hellusii and Oxionae ²⁷⁶ supposedly have human faces, but the bodies and limbs of wild beasts. I will leave these unverified reports alone. ²⁷⁷