It has been an ancient custom to record the actions and the writings of eminent men, with all their circumstances, and it is but a right that we owe to the memory of our famous author. Seneca was by birth a Spaniard of Cordova, (a Roman colony of great fame and antiquity.) He was of the family of Annæus, of the order of knights; and the father, Lucius Annæus Seneca, was distinguished from the son, by the name of the Orator. His mother’s name was Helvia, a woman of excellent qualities. His father came to Rome in the time of Augustus, and his wife and children soon followed him, our Seneca yet being in his infancy. There were three brothers of them, and never a sister. Marcus Annæus Novatus, Lucius Annæus Seneca, and Lucius Annæus Mela; the first of these changed his name for Junius Gallio, who adopted him; to him it was that he dedicated his treatise of ANGER, whom he calls Novatus too; and he also dedicated his discourse of a Happy Life to his brother Gallio. The youngest brother (Annæus Mela) was Lucan’s father. Seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were expelled from Rome. His father trained him up to rhetoric, but his genius led him rather to philosophy; and he applied his wit to morality and virtue. He was a great hearer of the celebrated men of those times; as Attalus, Sotion, Papirius, Fabianus, (of whom he makes often mention,) and he was much an admirer also of Demetrius the Cynic, whose conversation he had afterwards in the Court, and both at home also and abroad, for they often travelled together. His father was not at all pleased with his humor of philosophy, but forced him upon the law, and for a while he practiced pleading. After which he would needs put him upon public employment: and he came first to be quæstor, then prætor, and some will have it that he was chosen consul; but this is doubtful.
It has been an ancient custom to record the actions and writings of great men, along with all their circumstances. We owe this right to the memory of our famous author. Seneca was born a Spaniard from Cordova, a Roman colony of great fame and antiquity. He belonged to the Annaeus family, part of the knightly order. His father, Lucius Annaeus Seneca, was known as "the Orator" to distinguish him from his son. His mother's name was Helvia, a woman of excellent qualities. His father came to Rome during Augustus's time. His wife and children soon followed him, with our Seneca still in his infancy. There were three brothers and no sisters: Marcus Annaeus Novatus, Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and Lucius Annaeus Mela. The first brother changed his name to Junius Gallio when that man adopted him. Seneca dedicated his treatise on ANGER to him, calling him Novatus. He also dedicated his discourse on a Happy Life to his brother Gallio. The youngest brother, Annaeus Mela, was Lucan's father. Seneca was about twenty years old in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were expelled from Rome. His father trained him in rhetoric, but his natural talent led him toward philosophy. He applied his intelligence to morality and virtue. He listened eagerly to the celebrated men of those times: Attalus, Sotion, Papirius, and Fabianus, whom he mentions often. He also greatly admired Demetrius the Cynic. Later, he had conversations with Demetrius at court, at home, and abroad, as they often traveled together. His father was not pleased with his interest in philosophy. He forced him into law, and for a while Seneca practiced as a lawyer. After this, his father pushed him toward public service. He first became quaestor, then praetor. Some claim he was chosen consul, but this is doubtful.
Seneca finding that he had ill offices done him at court, and that Nero’s favor began to cool, he went directly and resolutely to Nero, with an offer to refund all that he had gotten, which Nero would not receive; but however, from that time he changed his course of life, received few visits, shunned company, went little abroad; still pretending to be kept at home, either by indisposition or by his study. Being Nero’s tutor and governor, all things were well so long as Nero followed his counsel. His two chief favorites were Burrhus and Seneca, who were both of them excellent in their ways: Burrhus, in his care of military affairs, and severity of discipline; Seneca for his precepts and good advice in the matter of eloquence, and the gentleness of an honest mind; assisting one another, in that slippery age of the prince (says Tacitus) to invite him, by the allowance of lawful pleasures, to the love of virtue. Seneca had two wives; the name of the first is not mentioned; his second was Paulina, whom he often speaks of with great passion. By the former he had his son Marcus.
Seneca realized that people at court were working against him, and that Nero's favor was starting to fade. He went straight to Nero and boldly offered to return everything he had gained. Nero refused to take it back. But from that point on, Seneca changed how he lived. He received few visitors, avoided company, and rarely went out. He always claimed to be staying home because of illness or his studies. As Nero's tutor and advisor, everything went well as long as Nero followed his guidance. Nero's two main favorites were Burrhus and Seneca, and both were excellent in their own ways. Burrhus handled military matters with strict discipline. Seneca provided wise advice about speaking well and showed the gentle nature of an honest mind. According to Tacitus, they worked together during the prince's difficult early years. They tried to guide him toward virtue by allowing him lawful pleasures. Seneca had two wives. The name of his first wife isn't mentioned. His second was Paulina, whom he often spoke of with great love. He had a son named Marcus with his first wife.
In the first year of Claudius he was banished into Corsica, when Julia, the daughter of Germanicus, was accused by Messalina of adultery and banished too, Seneca being charged as one of the adulterers. After a matter of eight years or upwards in exile, he was called back, and as much in favor again as ever. His estate was partly patrimonial, but the greatest part of it was the bounty of his prince. His gardens, villas, lands, possessions, and incredible sums of money, are agreed upon at all hands; which drew an envy upon him. Dio reports him to have had 250,000l. sterling at interest in Britanny alone, which he called in all at a sum. The Court itself could not bring him to flattery; and for his piety, submission, and virtue, the practice of his whole life witnesses for him. “So soon,” says he, “as the candle is taken away, my wife, that knows my custom, lies still, without a word speaking, and then do I recollect all that I have said or done that day, and take myself to shrift. And why should I conceal or reserve anything, or make any scruple of inquiring into my errors, when I can say to myself, Do so no more, and for this once I will forgive thee?” And again, what can be more pious and self-denying than this passage, in one of his epistles? “Believe me now, when I tell you the very bottom of my soul: in all the difficulties and crosses of my life, this is my consideration—since it is God’s will, I do not only obey, but assent to it; nor do I comply out of necessity, but inclination.”
In the first year of Claudius, he was banished to Corsica. Julia, the daughter of Germanicus, was accused by Messalina of adultery and banished too. Seneca was charged as one of the adulterers. After about eight years in exile, he was called back and returned to favor as much as ever. His estate was partly inherited, but most of it came from his prince's generosity. Everyone agreed he had gardens, villas, lands, possessions, and incredible sums of money. This drew envy upon him. Dio reports that he had 250,000 pounds sterling at interest in Britain alone, which he called in all at once. The Court itself could not make him resort to flattery. His whole life witnesses to his piety, submission, and virtue. "As soon as the candle is taken away," he says, "my wife, who knows my custom, lies still without speaking. Then I recall everything I said or did that day and examine myself. Why should I hide or hold back anything, or hesitate to look into my errors, when I can say to myself: Do so no more, and for this once I will forgive you?" What could be more pious and self-denying than this passage from one of his letters? "Believe me when I tell you the very bottom of my soul: in all the difficulties and troubles of my life, this is my thought. Since it is God's will, I do not only obey but agree to it. I don't comply out of necessity, but out of choice."
“Here follows now,” says Tacitus, “the death of Seneca, to Nero’s great satisfaction; not so much for any pregnant proof against him that he was of Piso’s conspiracy; but Nero was resolved to do that by the sword which he could not effect by poison. For it is reported, that Nero had corrupted Cleonicus (a freeman of Seneca’s) to give his master poison, which did not succeed. Whether that the servant had discovered it to his master, or that Seneca, by his own caution and jealousy, had avoided it; for he lived only upon a simple diet, as the fruits of the earth, and his drink was most commonly river water.
"Here follows now," says Tacitus, "the death of Seneca, to Nero's great satisfaction. This wasn't because of any solid proof that he was part of Piso's conspiracy. Nero was simply determined to accomplish with the sword what he couldn't manage with poison. It's reported that Nero had bribed Cleonicus, one of Seneca's freedmen, to poison his master. The plan failed. Either the servant warned his master, or Seneca avoided it through his own caution and suspicion. He lived on a simple diet of fruits and vegetables, and he usually drank only river water.
“Natalis, it seems, was sent upon a visit to him (being indisposed) with a complaint that he would not let Piso come at him; and advising him to the continuance of their friendship and acquaintance as formerly. To whom Seneca made answer, that frequent meetings and conferences betwixt them could do neither of them any good; but that he had a great interest in Piso’s welfare. Hereupon Granius Silvanus (a captain of the guard) was sent to examine Seneca upon the discourse that passed betwixt him and Natalis, and to return his answer. Seneca, either by chance or upon purpose, came that day from Campania, to a villa of his own, within four miles of the city; and thither the officer went the next evening, and beset the place. He found Seneca at supper with his wife Paulina, and two of his friends; and gave him immediately an account of his commission. Seneca told him, that it was true that Natalis had been with him in Piso’s name, with a complaint that Piso could not be admitted to see him; and that he excused himself by reason of his want of health, and his desires to be quiet and private; and that he had no reason to prefer another man’s welfare before his own. Cæsar himself, he said, knew very well that he was not a man of compliment, having received more proofs of his freedom than of his flattery. This answer of Seneca’s was delivered to Cæsar in the presence of Poppæa, and Tigellinus, the intimate confidants of this barbarous prince: and Nero asked him whether he could gather anything from Seneca as if he intended to make himself away? The tribune’s answer was, that he did not find him one jot moved with the message: but that he went on roundly with his tale, and never so much as changed countenance for the matter. Go back to him then, says Nero, and tell him, that he is condemned to die. Fabius Rusticus delivers it, that the tribune did not return the same way he came, but went aside to Fenius (a captain of that name) and told him Cæsar’s orders, asking his advice whether he should obey them or not; who bade him by all means to do as he was ordered. Which want of resolution was fatal to them all; for Silvanus also, that was one of the conspirators, assisted now to serve and to increase those crimes, which he had before complotted to revenge. And yet he did not think fit to appear himself in the business, but sent a centurion to Seneca to tell him his doom.
Natalis was sent to visit Seneca, who was ill at the time. Natalis complained that Seneca wouldn't let Piso see him. He advised Seneca to continue their friendship as before. Seneca replied that frequent meetings between them wouldn't help either of them. But he said he cared about Piso's welfare. After this, Granius Silvanus, a captain of the guard, was sent to question Seneca about his conversation with Natalis. He was to bring back Seneca's answer. Seneca had come from Campania that day, either by chance or on purpose, to his villa four miles from the city. The officer went there the next evening and surrounded the place. He found Seneca at dinner with his wife Paulina and two friends. The officer immediately explained his mission. Seneca told him it was true that Natalis had visited him on Piso's behalf. Natalis had complained that Piso couldn't get permission to see him. Seneca said he had excused himself because of poor health and his desire for quiet and privacy. He had no reason to put another man's welfare before his own. Caesar himself knew very well that Seneca was not a flatterer. Caesar had received more proof of Seneca's honesty than of his flattery. This answer was delivered to Caesar in front of Poppaea and Tigellinus, the close advisors of this cruel prince. Nero asked the tribune if he could tell whether Seneca intended to kill himself. The tribune answered that he didn't find Seneca disturbed by the message at all. Seneca had told his story directly and never even changed his expression. "Go back to him then," Nero said, "and tell him he is condemned to die." Fabius Rusticus reports that the tribune didn't return the same way he came. Instead, he went to see Fenius, a captain, and told him Caesar's orders. He asked Fenius whether he should obey them or not. Fenius told him he absolutely must do as he was ordered. This lack of courage was fatal to them all. Silvanus, who was also one of the conspirators, now helped to carry out the very crimes he had once plotted to avenge. Yet he didn't think it proper to appear in the business himself. Instead, he sent a centurion to Seneca to tell him his fate.
“Seneca, without any surprise or disorder, calls for his will; which being refused him by the officer, he turned to his friends, and told them that since he was not permitted to requite them as they deserved, he was yet at liberty to bequeath them the thing of all others that he esteemed the most, that is, the image of his life; which should give them the reputation both of constancy and friendship, if they would but imitate it; exhorting them to a firmness of mind, sometimes by good counsel, otherwhile by reprehension, as the occasion required. Where, says he, is all your philosophy now? all your premeditated resolutions against the violences of Fortune? Is there any man so ignorant of Nero’s cruelty, as to expect, after the murder of his mother and his brother, that he should ever spare the life of his governor and tutor? After some general expressions to this purpose, he took his wife in his arms, and having somewhat fortified her against the present calamity, he besought and conjured her to moderate her sorrows, and betake herself to the contemplations and comforts of a virtuous life; which would be a fair and ample consolation to her for the loss of her husband. Paulina, on the other side, tells him her determination to bear him company, and wills the executioner to do his office. Well, says Seneca, if after the sweetness of life, as I have represented it to thee, thou hadst rather entertain an honorable death, I shall not envy thy example; consulting, at the same time, the fame of the person he loved, and his own tenderness, for fear of the injuries that might attend her when he was gone. Our resolution, says he, in this generous act, may be equal, but thine will be the greater reputation. After this the veins of both their arms were opened at the same time. Seneca did not bleed so freely, his spirits being wasted with age and a thin diet; so that he was forced to cut the veins of his thighs and elsewhere, to hasten his dispatch. When he was far spent, and almost sinking under his torments, he desired his wife to remove into another chamber, lest the agonies of the one might work upon the courage of the other. His eloquence continued to the last, as appears by the excellent things he delivered at his death; which being taken in writing from his own mouth, and published in his own words, I shall not presume to deliver them in any other. Nero, in the meantime, who had no particular spite to Paulina, gave orders to prevent her death, for fear his cruelty should grow more and more insupportable and odious. Whereupon the soldiers gave all freedom and encouragement to her servants to bind up her wounds, and stop the blood, which they did accordingly; but whether she was sensible of it or not is a question. For among the common people, who are apt to judge the worst, there were some of opinion, that as long as she despaired of Nero’s mercy, she seemed to court the glory of dying with her husband for company; but that upon the likelihood of better quarter she was prevailed upon to outlive him; and so for some years she did survive him, with all piety and respect to his memory; but so miserably pale and wan, that everybody might read the loss of her blood and spirits in her very countenance.
Seneca showed no surprise or panic when he called for his will. The officer refused to bring it to him. So Seneca turned to his friends and told them something important. Since he couldn't repay them as they deserved, he could still leave them the thing he valued most: the example of his life. This would give them a reputation for both steadfastness and friendship, if only they would follow his example. He urged them to stay strong, sometimes offering good advice, other times giving sharp criticism as the situation demanded. "Where is all your philosophy now?" he asked. "Where are all your prepared responses to Fortune's attacks? Does anyone really not know how cruel Nero is? After he murdered his own mother and brother, did you expect him to spare his old teacher and advisor?" After making these general points, he took his wife in his arms. He helped strengthen her against their current disaster. Then he begged her to control her grief and turn to the thoughts and comforts of a virtuous life. This would be a beautiful and complete consolation for losing her husband. But Paulina told him she had decided to die with him. She ordered the executioner to do his job. "Well," said Seneca, "if you would rather choose an honorable death over the sweetness of life as I've shown it to you, I won't begrudge your example." He was thinking both about the reputation of the person he loved and his own tender feelings. He feared what injuries might come to her after he was gone. "Our determination in this noble act may be equal," he said, "but yours will bring greater glory." Then the veins in both their arms were cut at the same time. Seneca didn't bleed freely enough. His body was weakened by age and a sparse diet. So he had to cut the veins in his thighs and other places to speed his death. When he was nearly spent and almost overcome by his suffering, he asked his wife to go to another room. He didn't want one person's agony to weaken the other's courage. His eloquence lasted until the end, as shown by the excellent words he spoke while dying. These were written down from his own mouth and published in his exact words. I won't presume to repeat them in any other form. Meanwhile, Nero had no particular hatred for Paulina. He gave orders to prevent her death, fearing his cruelty would become even more unbearable and hateful. So the soldiers encouraged her servants to bandage her wounds and stop the bleeding, which they did. But whether she was conscious of this is unclear. Among the common people, who tend to assume the worst, some believed that as long as she had no hope of Nero's mercy, she seemed eager for the glory of dying alongside her husband. But when better treatment seemed possible, she was persuaded to outlive him. She did survive him for several years, showing complete devotion and respect to his memory. But she remained so terribly pale and thin that everyone could see the loss of blood and vitality written on her face.
“Seneca finding his death slow and lingering, desires Statius Annæus (his old friend and physician) to give him a dose of poison, which he had provided beforehand, being the same preparation which was appointed for capital offenders in Athens. This was brought him, and he drank it up, but to little purpose; for his body was already chilled, and bound up against the force of it. He went at last into a hot bath, and sprinkling some of his servants that were next him, this, says he, is an oblation to Jupiter the deliverer. The fume of the bath soon dispatched him, and his body was burnt, without any funeral solemnity, as he had directed in his testament: though this will of his was made in the height of his prosperity and power. There was a rumor that Subrius Flavius, in a private consultation with the centurions, had taken up this following resolution, (and that Seneca himself was no stranger to it) that is to say, that after Nero should have been slain by the help of Piso, Piso himself should have been killed too; and the empire delivered up to Seneca, as one that well deserved it, for his integrity and virtue.”
Seneca found his death was slow and drawn out. He asked Statius Annaeus, his old friend and physician, to give him a dose of poison. He had prepared this beforehand. It was the same poison used for condemned criminals in Athens. The poison was brought to him, and he drank it. But it had little effect because his body was already cold and resistant to it. Finally, he went into a hot bath. He sprinkled some water on his servants who were nearby. "This," he said, "is an offering to Jupiter the deliverer." The steam from the bath soon killed him. His body was burned without any funeral ceremony, just as he had requested in his will. He had written this will during the height of his prosperity and power. There was a rumor that Subrius Flavius had made a secret plan with the centurions. Seneca himself may have known about it. The plan was this: after Piso helped kill Nero, Piso himself would also be killed. Then the empire would be given to Seneca, who deserved it for his integrity and virtue.