It appears that our author had among the ancients three professed enemies. In the first place Caligula, who called his writings, sand without lime; alluding to the starts of his fancy, and the incoherence of his sentences. But Seneca was never the worse for the censure of a person that propounded even the suppressing of Homer himself; and of casting Virgil and Livy out of all public libraries. The next was Fabius, who taxes him for being too bold with the eloquence of former times, and failing in that point himself; and likewise for being too quaint and finical in his expressions; which Tacitus imputes, in part to the freedom of his own particular inclination, and partly to the humor of the times. He is also charged by Fabius as no profound philosopher; but with all this, he allows him to be a man very studious and learned, of great wit and invention, and well read in all sorts of literature; a severe reprover of vice; most divinely sententious; and well worth the reading, if it were only for his morals; adding, that if his judgment had been answerable to his wit, it had been much the more for his reputation; but he wrote whatever came next; so that I would advise the reader (says he) to distinguish where he himself did not, for there are many things in him, not only to be approved, but admired; and it was great pity that he that could do what he would, should not always make the best choice. His third adversary is Agellius, who falls upon him for his style, and a kind of tinkling in his sentences, but yet commends him for his piety and good counsels. On the other side, Columela calls him a man of excellent wit and learning; Pliny, the prince of erudition; Tacitus gives him the character of a wise man, and a fit tutor for a prince; Dio reports him to have been the greatest man of his age.
Our author had three main critics among the ancient writers. First was Caligula, who called his writings "sand without lime." He was referring to Seneca's wild ideas and disconnected sentences. But Seneca wasn't hurt by criticism from someone who wanted to ban Homer and remove Virgil and Livy from all public libraries. The second critic was Fabius, who accused Seneca of being too bold with the eloquence of earlier writers while failing at it himself. Fabius also said Seneca was too fancy and overly elaborate in his writing. Tacitus partly blamed this on Seneca's personal style and partly on the fashion of the times. Fabius also charged that Seneca was no deep philosopher. Even so, he admitted that Seneca was very studious and learned, with great wit and creativity. He was well-read in all kinds of literature, a harsh critic of vice, and brilliantly wise in his sayings. Fabius said Seneca was well worth reading, if only for his moral teachings. He added that if Seneca's judgment had matched his wit, his reputation would have been much better. But Seneca wrote whatever came to mind. So Fabius advised readers to make distinctions where Seneca himself did not. There are many things in his work not only to approve of, but to admire. It was a shame that someone who could do whatever he wanted didn't always make the best choices. His third opponent was Agellius, who attacked his style and a kind of jingling quality in his sentences. But even Agellius praised him for his devotion and good advice. On the other hand, Columela called him a man of excellent wit and learning. Pliny called him the prince of scholarship. Tacitus described him as a wise man and a suitable tutor for a prince. Dio reported that he was the greatest man of his time.
Of those pieces of his that are extant, we shall not need to give any particular account: and of those that are lost, we cannot, any farther than by lights to them from other authors, as we find them cited much to his honor; and we may reasonably compute them to be the greater part of his works. That he wrote several poems in his banishment, may be gathered partly from himself, but more expressly out of Tacitus, who says, “that he was reproached with his applying himself to poetry, after he saw that Nero took pleasure in it, out of a design to curry favor.” St. Jerome refers to a discourse of his concerning matrimony. Lactantius takes notice of his history, and his books of Moralities: St. Augustine quotes some passages of his out of a book of Superstition; some references we meet with to his books of Exhortations: Fabius makes mention of his Dialogues: and he himself speaks of a treatise of his own concerning Earthquakes, which he wrote in his youth, but the opinion of an epistolary correspondence that he had with St. Paul, does not seem to have much color for it.
We don't need to give a detailed account of his surviving works. As for his lost works, we can only learn about them from references by other authors, who cite them with great respect. We can reasonably assume that most of his works have been lost. We can tell he wrote several poems during his exile, partly from his own words but more clearly from Tacitus. Tacitus says "he was criticized for turning to poetry after he saw that Nero enjoyed it, hoping to win favor." St. Jerome mentions a discourse he wrote about marriage. Lactantius notes his history and his books on morality. St. Augustine quotes passages from his book on superstition. We find references to his books of exhortations. Fabius mentions his dialogues. Seneca himself speaks of a treatise he wrote about earthquakes in his youth. However, the idea that he exchanged letters with St. Paul doesn't seem to have much evidence supporting it.
Some few fragments, however, of those books of his that are wanting, are yet preserved in the writings of other eminent authors, sufficient to show the world how great a treasure they have lost by the excellency of that little that is left.
A few fragments of his missing books have survived in the writings of other distinguished authors. These small pieces are enough to show the world what a great treasure we lost. The excellence of what remains proves how valuable the complete works must have been.
Seneca, says Lactantius, that was the sharpest of all the Stoics, how great a veneration has he for the Almighty! as for instance, discoursing of a violent death; “Do you not understand?” says he, “the majesty and the authority of your Judge; he is the supreme Governor of heaven and earth, and the God of all your gods; and it is upon him that all those powers depend which we worship for deities.” Moreover, in his Exhortations, “This God,” says he, “when he laid the foundations of the universe, and entered upon the greatest and the best work in nature, in the ordering of the government of the world, though he was himself All in all, yet he substituted other subordinate ministers, as the servants of his commands.” And how many other things does this Heathen speak of God like one of us!
Lactantius tells us that Seneca was the sharpest of all the Stoics. Look at how much he revered the Almighty! When discussing violent death, Seneca said, "Don't you understand the majesty and authority of your Judge? He is the supreme Governor of heaven and earth, and the God of all your gods. All those powers we worship as deities depend on him." In his Exhortations, Seneca wrote, "When this God laid the foundations of the universe and began the greatest and best work in nature—ordering the government of the world—he was himself All in all. Yet he appointed other subordinate ministers as servants of his commands." How many other things does this pagan speak of God just like one of us!
Which the acute Seneca, says Lactantius again, saw in his Exhortations. “We,” says he, “have our dependence elsewhere, and should look up to that power, to which we are indebted for all that we can pretend to that is good.”
Lactantius tells us that the perceptive Seneca saw this truth in his Exhortations. "We depend on something beyond ourselves," Seneca said, "and should look up to that power. We owe everything good in us to that source."
And again, Seneca says very well in his Morals, “They worship the images of the God,” says he, “kneel to them, and adore them, they are hardly ever from them, either plying them with offerings or sacrifices, and yet, after all this reverence to the image, they have no regard at all to the workman that made it.”
Seneca makes an excellent point in his Morals. "They worship the images of the God," he says. "They kneel to them and adore them. They are hardly ever away from them, constantly bringing offerings or sacrifices." Yet after all this reverence to the image, they have no regard at all for the workman who made it.
Lactantius again. “An invective,” says Seneca in his Exhortations, “is the masterpiece of most of our philosophers; and if they fall upon the subject of avarice, lust, ambition, they lash out into such excess of bitterness, as if railing were a mark of their profession. They make me think of gallipots in an apothecary’s shop, that have remedies without and poison within.”
Lactantius again. "An invective," says Seneca in his Exhortations, "is the masterpiece of most of our philosophers. If they fall upon the subject of avarice, lust, or ambition, they lash out with such bitter excess. It's as if railing were a mark of their profession. They make me think of gallipots in an apothecary's shop. These containers have remedies on the outside and poison within."
Lactantius still. “He that would know all things, let him read Seneca; the most lively describer of public vices and manners, and the smartest reprehender of them.”
Lactantius continues: "Anyone who wants to understand everything should read Seneca. He describes public vices and social customs more vividly than anyone else. He also criticizes them more sharply than anyone."
And again; as Seneca has it in the books of Moral Philosophy, “He is the brave man, whose splendor and authority is the least part of his greatness, that can look death in the face without trouble or surprise; who, if his body were to be broken upon the wheel, or melted lead to be poured down his throat, would be less concerned for the pain itself, than for the dignity of bearing it.”
As Seneca wrote in his books on moral philosophy, "The truly brave person is one whose fame and power are the smallest parts of what makes him great. He can face death without fear or shock. Even if his body were broken on the torture wheel, or molten lead poured down his throat, he would worry less about the pain than about bearing it with dignity."
Let no man, says Lactantius, think himself the safer in his wickedness for want of a witness; for God is omniscient, and to him nothing can be a secret. It is an admirable sentence that Seneca concludes his Exhortations withal: “God,” says he, “is a great, (I know not what), an incomprehensible Power; it is to him that we live, and to him that we must approve ourselves. What does it avail us that our consciences are hidden from men, when our souls lie open to God?” What could a Christian have spoken more to the purpose in this case than this divine Pagan? And in the beginning of the same work, says Seneca, “What is it that we do? to what end is it to stand contriving, and to hide ourselves? We are under a guard, and there is no escaping from our keeper. One man may be parted from another by travel, death, sickness; but there is no dividing us from ourselves. It is to no purpose to creep into a corner where nobody shall see us. Ridiculous madness! Make it the case, that no mortal eye could find us out, he that has a conscience gives evidence against himself.”
Lactantius warns us not to think we're safe in our wrongdoing just because no one witnesses it. God knows everything, and nothing can be hidden from him. Seneca ends his Exhortations with a remarkable statement: "God is great, something I cannot fully understand, an incomprehensible Power. We live for him, and we must prove ourselves worthy to him. What good does it do us that our consciences are hidden from people when our souls lie open to God?" Could a Christian have said anything more fitting than this wise pagan? At the beginning of the same work, Seneca asks, "What are we doing? Why do we spend time scheming and hiding ourselves? We are under guard, and there's no escaping our keeper. One person may be separated from another by travel, death, or sickness, but we cannot be divided from ourselves. There's no point in creeping into a corner where no one can see us. What ridiculous madness! Even if no human eye could find us, anyone with a conscience gives evidence against himself."
It is truly and excellently spoken of Seneca, says Lactantius, once again; “Consider,” says he “the majesty, the goodness, and the venerable mercies of the Almighty; a friend that is always at hand. What delight can it be to him the slaughter of innocent creatures or the worship of bloody sacrifices? Let us purge our minds, and lead virtuous and honest lives. His pleasure lies not in the magnificence of temples made with stone, but in the pity and devotion of consecrated hearts.”
Lactantius quotes Seneca again, and his words are truly excellent. "Consider," Seneca says, "the majesty, goodness, and merciful nature of the Almighty. He is a friend who is always there for us. What pleasure could he possibly find in the slaughter of innocent creatures or in bloody sacrifices? Let us cleanse our minds and live virtuous, honest lives. God doesn't take pleasure in magnificent stone temples, but in the compassion and devotion of consecrated hearts."
In the book that Seneca wrote against Superstitions, treating of images, says St. Austin, he writes thus: “They represent the holy, the immortal, and the inviolable gods in the basest matter, and without life or motion; in the forms of men, beasts, fishes, some of mixed bodies, and those figures they call deities, which, if they were but animated, would affright a man, and pass for monsters.” And then, a little farther, treating of Natural Theology, after citing the opinions of philosophers, he supposes an objection against himself: “Somebody will perhaps ask me, would you have me then to believe the heavens and the earth to be gods, and some of them above the moon, and some below it? Shall I ever be brought to the opinion of Plato, or of Strabo the Peripatetic? the one of which would have God to be without a body, and the other without a mind.” To which he replies, “And do you give more credit then to the dreams of T. Tatius, Romulus, Hostilius, who caused, among other deities, even Fear and Paleness to be worshipped? the vilest of human affections; the one being the motion of an affrighted mind, and the other not so much the disease as the color of a disordered body. Are these the deities that you will rather put your faith in, and place in the heavens?” And speaking afterward of their abominable customs, with what liberty does he write! “One,” says he, “out of zeal, makes himself an eunuch, another lances his arms; if this be the way to please their gods, what should a man do if he had a mind to anger them? or, if this be the way to please them, they do certainly deserve not to be worshipped at all. What a frenzy is this to imagine that the gods can be delighted with such cruelties, as even the worst of men would make a conscience to inflict! The most barbarous and notorious of tyrants, some of them have perhaps done it themselves, or ordered the tearing of men to pieces by others; but they never went so far as to command any man to torment himself. We have heard of those that have suffered castration to gratify the lust of their imperious masters, but never any man that was forced to act it upon himself. They murder themselves in their very temples, and their prayers are offered up in blood. Whosoever shall but observe what they do, and what they suffer, will find it so misbecoming an honest man, so unworthy of a freeman, and so inconsistent with the action of a man in his wits, that he must conclude them all to be mad, if it were not that there are so many of them; for only their number is their justification and their protection.”
In the book that Seneca wrote against Superstitions, treating of images, says St. Austin, he writes this: "They represent the holy, the immortal, and the inviolable gods in the cheapest materials, without life or motion. They make them in the forms of men, beasts, fishes, some with mixed bodies. They call these figures deities, but if they came to life, they would frighten a man and look like monsters." Then, a little later, when discussing Natural Theology, after citing the opinions of philosophers, he imagines someone objecting to his views: "Someone will perhaps ask me, would you have me believe the heavens and the earth are gods? Some above the moon, and some below it? Should I accept the opinion of Plato, or of Strabo the Peripatetic? One says God has no body, and the other says God has no mind." He replies, "Do you give more credit to the dreams of T. Tatius, Romulus, Hostilius? They made people worship Fear and Paleness as deities, along with other gods. These are the worst human emotions. One is the reaction of a frightened mind, and the other is not even a disease but just the color of a sick body. Are these the deities you would rather put your faith in and place in the heavens?" When speaking afterward of their disgusting customs, he writes with complete freedom! "One person," he says, "out of religious passion, castrates himself. Another cuts his arms. If this is how to please their gods, what should a man do if he wanted to anger them? If this is how to please them, they certainly don't deserve to be worshipped at all. What madness is this, to imagine that the gods can be delighted with such cruelties that even the worst of men would refuse to inflict! The most barbarous and notorious tyrants may have done such things themselves, or ordered others to tear men to pieces. But they never went so far as to command any man to torment himself. We have heard of those who suffered castration to satisfy the lust of their demanding masters, but never any man who was forced to do it to himself. They murder themselves in their very temples, and their prayers are offered up in blood. Anyone who observes what they do and what they suffer will find it so inappropriate for an honest man, so unworthy of a free person, and so inconsistent with the actions of a sane man, that he must conclude they are all mad. The only reason we don't call them mad is that there are so many of them. Only their number justifies and protects them."
When he comes to reflect, says St. Augustine, upon those passages which he himself had seen in the Capitol, he censures them with liberty and resolution; and no man will believe that such things would be done unless in mockery or frenzy. What lamentation is there in the Egyptian sacrifices for the loss of Osiris? and then what joy for the finding of him again? Which he makes himself sport with; for in truth it is all a fiction; and yet those people that neither lost any thing nor found any thing, must express their sorrows and their rejoicings to the highest degree. “But there is only a certain time,” says he, “for this freak, and once in a year people may be allowed to be mad. I came into the Capitol,” says Seneca, “where the several deities had their several servants and attendants, their lictors, their dressers, and all in posture and action, as if they were executing their offices; some to hold the glass, others to comb out Juno’s and Minerva’s hair; one to tell Jupiter what o’clock it is; some lasses there are that sit gazing upon the image, and fancy Jupiter has a kindness for them. All these things,” says Seneca, a while after, “a wise man will observe for the law’s sake more than for the gods; and all this rabble of deities, which the superstition of many ages has gathered together, we are in such manner to adore, as to consider the worship to be rather matter of custom than of conscience.” Whereupon St. Augustine observes, that this illustrious senator worshipped what he reproved, acted what he disliked, and adored what he condemned.
When St. Augustine reflects on the religious ceremonies he witnessed in the Capitol, he criticizes them freely and boldly. No one would believe such things could happen except as mockery or madness. Look at the Egyptian sacrifices - they mourn the loss of Osiris, then celebrate finding him again. Augustine finds this amusing because it's all fiction. Yet these people, who never actually lost or found anything, must express the deepest sorrow and joy. "But there's only a certain time for this madness," he says, "and once a year people are allowed to go crazy." "I went to the Capitol," says Seneca, "where the different gods had their various servants and attendants - their guards, their hairdressers, all acting as if they were doing real jobs. Some hold mirrors, others comb Juno's and Minerva's hair. One tells Jupiter what time it is. There are girls who sit staring at the statue, imagining Jupiter has feelings for them." Later, Seneca adds, "A wise man will observe these things for the sake of law rather than for the gods. This whole crowd of deities, gathered by centuries of superstition, we should worship in such a way that we consider it more a matter of custom than conscience." St. Augustine notes that this distinguished senator worshipped what he criticized, performed what he disliked, and adored what he condemned.