If it be true, that the understanding and the will are the two eminent faculties of the reasonable soul, it follows necessarily, that wisdom and virtue, (which are the best improvements of these two faculties,) must be the perfection also of our reasonable being; and consequently, the undeniable foundation of a happy life. There is not any duty to which Providence has not annexed a blessing; nor any institution of Heaven which, even in this life, we may not be the better for; not any temptation, either of fortune or of appetite, that is not subject to our reason; nor any passion or affliction for which virtue has not provided a remedy. So that it is our own fault if we either fear or hope for anything; which two affections are the root of all our miseries. From this general prospect of the foundation of our tranquillity, we shall pass by degrees to a particular consideration of the means by which it may be procured, and of the impediments that obstruct it; beginning with that philosophy which principally regards our manners, and instructs us in the measures of a virtuous and quiet life.
If it's true that understanding and willpower are the two main abilities of the rational mind, then wisdom and virtue must be the perfection of our rational nature. These are the best developments of these two abilities. Therefore, they must be the undeniable foundation of a happy life. Providence has attached a blessing to every duty we have. Heaven has created no institution that we cannot benefit from, even in this life. No temptation, whether from fortune or appetite, is beyond our reason's control. Virtue has provided a remedy for every passion or suffering. So it's our own fault if we either fear or hope for anything. These two emotions are the root of all our miseries. From this general view of what creates our peace of mind, we'll move step by step to examine the specific ways we can achieve it. We'll also look at the obstacles that block it. We'll start with the philosophy that mainly concerns our behavior and teaches us how to live a virtuous and peaceful life.
Philosophy is divided into moral, natural, and rational: the first concerns our manners; the second searches the works of Nature; and the third furnishes us with propriety of words and arguments, and the faculty of distinguishing, that we may not be imposed upon with tricks and fallacies. The causes of things fall under natural philosophy, arguments under rational, and actions under moral. Moral philosophy is again divided into matter of justice, which arises from the estimation of things and of men; and into affections and actions; and a failing in any one of these, disorders all the rest: for what does it profit us to know the true value of things, if we be transported by our passion? or to master our appetites without understanding the when, the what, the how, and other circumstances of our proceedings? For it is one thing to know the rate and dignity of things, and another to know the little nicks and springs of acting. Natural philosophy is conversant about things corporeal and incorporeal; the disquisition of causes and effects, and the contemplation of the cause of causes. Rational philosophy is divided into logic and rhetoric; the one looks after words, sense, and order; the other treats barely of words, and the significations of them. Socrates places all philosophy in morals; and wisdom in the distinguishing of good and evil. It is the art and law of life, and it teaches us what to do in all cases, and, like good marksmen, to hit the white at any distance. The force of it is incredible; for it gives us in the weakness of a man the security of a spirit: in sickness it is as good as a remedy to us; for whatsoever eases the mind is profitable also to the body. The physician may prescribe diet and exercise, and accommodate his rule and medicine to the disease, but it is philosophy that must bring us to a contempt of death, which is the remedy of all diseases. In poverty it gives us riches, or such a state of mind as makes them superfluous to us. It arms us against all difficulties: one man is pressed with death, another with poverty; some with envy, others are offended at Providence, and unsatisfied with the condition of mankind: but philosophy prompts us to relieve the prisoner, the infirm, the necessitous, the condemned; to show the ignorant their errors, and rectify their affections. It makes us inspect and govern our manners; it rouses us where we are faint and drowsy: it binds up what is loose, and humbles in us that which is contumacious: it delivers the mind from the bondage of the body, and raises it up to the contemplation of its divine original. Honors, monuments, and all the works of vanity and ambition are demolished and destroyed by time; but the reputation of wisdom is venerable to posterity, and those that were envied or neglected in their lives are adored in their memories, and exempted from the very laws of created nature, which has set bounds to all other things. The very shadow of glory carries a man of honor upon all dangers, to the contempt of fire and sword; and it were a shame if right reason should not inspire as generous resolutions into a man of virtue.
Philosophy has three main branches: moral, natural, and rational. The first deals with our behavior and character. The second studies how nature works. The third teaches us to use words and arguments properly, and helps us spot tricks and false reasoning. Natural philosophy examines the causes of things. Rational philosophy focuses on arguments. Moral philosophy deals with our actions. Moral philosophy breaks down further into two areas: justice, which comes from understanding the true value of things and people, and emotions and actions. If we fail in any one of these areas, everything else falls apart. What good does it do to know the true value of things if we're controlled by our emotions? Or what's the point of controlling our desires if we don't understand when, what, how, and under what circumstances to act? Knowing the worth and importance of things is different from knowing the subtle art of taking action. Natural philosophy studies both physical and non-physical things. It investigates causes and effects, and contemplates the ultimate cause of all causes. Rational philosophy divides into logic and rhetoric. Logic deals with words, meaning, and order. Rhetoric focuses purely on words and what they mean. Socrates believed all philosophy was about morals. He thought wisdom meant being able to tell good from evil. Philosophy is the art and law of life. It teaches us what to do in every situation, and like skilled archers, helps us hit our target from any distance. Its power is incredible. It gives us the security of a spirit even in our human weakness. When we're sick, it works like medicine. Whatever eases the mind also helps the body. A doctor can prescribe diet and exercise, and match treatments to diseases. But only philosophy can teach us to despise death, which is the cure for all diseases. In poverty, philosophy gives us riches, or at least a state of mind that makes wealth unnecessary. It protects us against all hardships. One person faces death, another poverty. Some deal with envy, others are angry at fate and dissatisfied with human nature. But philosophy urges us to help prisoners, the sick, the needy, and the condemned. It shows the ignorant their mistakes and corrects their feelings. It makes us examine and control our behavior. It wakes us up when we're lazy and tired. It strengthens what is weak and humbles what is stubborn. It frees the mind from the body's control and lifts it up to contemplate its divine source. Honors, monuments, and all the works of vanity and ambition are torn down and destroyed by time. But the reputation of wisdom is respected by future generations. Those who were envied or ignored during their lives are worshipped in memory. They seem exempt from the very laws of nature, which set limits on everything else. Even the mere shadow of glory drives an honorable person to face all dangers and despise fire and sword. It would be shameful if right reason didn't inspire equally brave decisions in a virtuous person.
Neither is philosophy only profitable to the public, but one wise man helps another, even in the exercise of the virtues; and the one has need of the other, both for conversation and counsel; for they kindle a mutual emulation in good offices. We are not so perfect yet, but that many new things remain still to be found out, which will give us the reciprocal advantages of instructing one another: for as one wicked man is contagious to another, and the more vices are mingled, the worse it is, so is it on the contrary with good men and their virtues. As men of letters are the most useful and excellent of friends, so are they the best of subjects; as being better judges of the blessings they enjoy under a well-ordered government, and of what they owe to the magistrate for their freedom and protection. They are men of sobriety and learning, and free from boasting and insolence; they reprove the vice without reproaching the person; for they have learned to be without either pomp or envy. That which we see in high mountains, we find in philosophers; they seem taller near at hand than at a distance. They are raised above other men, but their greatness is substantial. Nor do they stand upon tiptoe, that they may seem higher than they are, but, content with their own stature, they reckon themselves tall enough when fortune cannot reach them. Their laws are short, and yet comprehensive too, for they bind all.
Philosophy benefits not just the public, but wise people help each other too, especially when practicing virtue. They need each other for conversation and advice. They inspire each other to do good deeds. We're not perfect yet, so there are still many new things to discover. This gives us chances to teach each other. Just as one bad person corrupts another, and mixing more vices makes things worse, the opposite happens with good people and their virtues. Educated people make the most useful and excellent friends. They also make the best citizens because they better understand the benefits of good government and what they owe to leaders for their freedom and protection. They are sober and learned, free from bragging and rudeness. They criticize bad behavior without attacking the person, having learned to live without pride or jealousy. What we see in high mountains, we find in philosophers. They seem taller up close than from far away. They rise above other people, but their greatness is real. They don't stand on tiptoe to seem taller than they are. Content with their natural height, they consider themselves tall enough when fortune cannot touch them. Their laws are brief yet complete, binding everyone.
It is the bounty of nature that we live; but of philosophy that we live well, which is in truth a greater benefit than life itself. Not but that philosophy is also the gift of Heaven, so far as to the faculty, but not to the science; for that must be the business of industry. No man is born wise; but wisdom and virtue require a tutor, though we can easily learn to be vicious without a master. It is philosophy that gives us a veneration for God, a charity for our neighbor, that teaches us our duty to Heaven, and exhorts us to an agreement one with another; it unmasks things that are terrible to us, assuages our lusts, refutes our errors, restrains our luxury, reproves our avarice, and works strangely upon tender natures. I could never hear Attalus (says Seneca) upon the vices of the age and the errors of life, without a compassion for mankind; and in his discourses upon poverty, there was something methought that was more than human. “More than we use,” says he, “is more than we need, and only a burden to the bearer.” That saying of his put me out of countenance at the superfluities of my own fortune. And so in his invectives against vain pleasures, he did at such a rate advance the felicities of a sober table, a pure mind, and a chaste body that a man could not hear him without a love for continence and moderation. Upon these lectures of his, I denied myself, for a while after, certain delicacies that I had formerly used: but in a short time I fell to them again, though so sparingly, that the proportion came little short of a total abstinence.
We live because of nature's bounty, but we live well because of philosophy. Living well is truly a greater benefit than life itself. Philosophy is also a gift from Heaven, at least when it comes to our natural ability. But the actual knowledge must come through hard work. No one is born wise. Wisdom and virtue need a teacher, though we can easily learn to be wicked without a master. Philosophy gives us reverence for God and love for our neighbors. It teaches us our duty to Heaven and urges us to live in harmony with one another. It reveals the true nature of things that frighten us, calms our desires, corrects our mistakes, controls our excess, and criticizes our greed. It has a remarkable effect on sensitive people. I could never hear Attalus speak about the vices of our time and life's errors without feeling compassion for humanity, says Seneca. When he talked about poverty, there was something in his words that seemed more than human. "More than we use is more than we need," he would say, "and only a burden to the one who carries it." That saying made me ashamed of my own excessive wealth. When he spoke against empty pleasures, he praised the joys of simple meals, a clear mind, and a pure body so powerfully that no one could listen without falling in love with self-control and moderation. After hearing these lectures, I gave up certain luxuries I had enjoyed before. But after a short time, I returned to them, though so sparingly that I came close to giving them up entirely.
Now, to show you (says our author) how much earnester my entrance upon philosophy was than my progress, my tutor Sotion gave me a wonderful kindness for Pythagoras, and after him for Sextius: the former forbore shedding of blood upon his metempsychosis: and put men in fear of it, lest they should offer violence to the souls of some of their departed friends or relations. “Whether,” says he, “there be a transmigration or not; if it be true, there is no hurt; if false, there is frugality: and nothing is gotten by cruelty neither, but the cozening a wolf, perhaps, or a vulture, of a supper.”
Now, to show you how much more eager I was when I started studying philosophy than I was at making progress, my tutor Sotion gave me a wonderful appreciation for Pythagoras, and after him for Sextius. Pythagoras refused to shed blood because of his belief in metempsychosis. He warned people against it, fearing they might harm the souls of departed friends or relatives. "Whether there is transmigration or not," he said, "if it's true, there's no harm in avoiding meat. If it's false, there's still frugality. Nothing is gained by cruelty either, except perhaps cheating a wolf or vulture out of a meal."
Now, Sextius abstained upon another account, which was, that he would not have men inured to hardness of heart by the laceration and tormenting of living creatures; beside, “that Nature had sufficiently provided for the sustenance of mankind without blood.” This wrought upon me so far that I gave over eating of flesh, and in one year I made it not only easy to me but pleasant; my mind methought was more at liberty, (and I am still of the same opinion,) but I gave it over nevertheless; and the reason was this: it was imputed as a superstition to the Jews, the forbearance of some sorts of flesh, and my father brought me back again to my old custom, that I might not be thought tainted with their superstition. Nay, and I had much ado to prevail upon myself to suffer it too. I make use of this instance to show the aptness of youth to take good impressions, if there be a friend at hand to press them. Philosophers are the tutors of mankind; if they have found out remedies for the mind, it must be our part to employ them. I cannot think of Cato, Lelius, Socrates, Plato, without veneration: their very names are sacred to me. Philosophy is the health of the mind; let us look to that health first, and in the second place to that of the body, which may be had upon easier terms; for a strong arm, a robust constitution, or the skill of procuring this, is not a philosopher’s business. He does some things as a wise man, and other things as he is a man; and he may have strength of body as well as of mind; but if he runs, or casts the sledge, it were injurious to ascribe that to his wisdom which is common to the greatest of fools. He studies rather to fill his mind than his coffers; and he knows that gold and silver were mingled with dirt, until avarice or ambition parted them. His life is ordinate, fearless, equal, secure; he stands firm in all extremities, and bears the lot of his humanity with a divine temper. There is a great difference betwixt the splendor of philosophy and of fortune; the one shines with an original light, the other with a borrowed one; beside that it makes us happy and immortal: for learning shall outlive palaces and monuments. The house of a wise man is safe, though narrow; there is neither noise nor furniture in it, no porter at the door, nor anything that is either vendible or mercenary, nor any business of fortune, for she has nothing to do where she has nothing to look after. This is the way to Heaven which Nature has chalked out, and it is both secure and pleasant; there needs no train of servants, no pomp or equipage, to make good our passage; no money or letters of credit, for expenses upon the voyage; but the graces of an honest mind will serve us upon the way, and make us happy at our journey’s end.
Now, Sextius avoided eating meat for another reason. He believed that tearing apart and torturing living creatures would make people hard-hearted. Besides, "Nature had provided enough food for humans without requiring blood." This convinced me so much that I stopped eating meat. Within a year, I found it not only easy but pleasant. I felt my mind was freer, and I still believe this is true. But I gave it up anyway, and here's why: people accused the Jews of superstition for avoiding certain types of meat. My father brought me back to my old eating habits so I wouldn't be thought infected with their superstition. I had a hard time forcing myself to accept this change. I share this story to show how easily young people can be influenced for good when they have a friend to guide them. Philosophers are the teachers of humanity. If they have discovered cures for the mind, we must use them. I cannot think of Cato, Lelius, Socrates, or Plato without deep respect. Their very names are sacred to me. Philosophy is the health of the mind. Let us focus on that health first, and then on the body's health, which is easier to achieve. A strong arm, a robust body, or the skill to build one is not a philosopher's job. He does some things as a wise man and other things simply as a human being. He may have physical strength as well as mental strength. But if he runs or throws weights, it would be wrong to credit his wisdom for what any fool can do. He works to fill his mind rather than his wallet. He knows that gold and silver were mixed with dirt until greed or ambition separated them. His life is orderly, fearless, steady, and secure. He stands firm in all crises and bears human suffering with godlike patience. There is a huge difference between the glory of philosophy and the glory of wealth. One shines with its own light, the other with borrowed light. Philosophy also makes us happy and immortal, for learning will outlast palaces and monuments. A wise man's house is safe, though small. There is no noise or fancy furniture in it, no doorman, and nothing for sale or hire. Fortune has no business there because she has nothing to manage. This is the path to Heaven that Nature has marked out. It is both safe and pleasant. We need no servants, no luxury or equipment to make the journey. We need no money or credit for travel expenses. The qualities of an honest mind will serve us along the way and make us happy when we reach our destination.
To tell you my opinion now of the liberal sciences; I have no great esteem for any thing that terminates in profit or money; and yet I shall allow them to be so far beneficial, as they only prepare the understanding without detaining it. They are but the rudiments of wisdom, and only then to be learned when the mind is capable of nothing better, and the knowledge of them is better worth the keeping than the acquiring. They do not so much as pretend to the making of us virtuous, but only to give us an aptitude of disposition to be so. The grammarian’s business lies in a syntax of speech; or if he proceed to history, or the measuring of a verse, he is at the end of his line; but what signifies a congruity of periods, the computing of syllables, or the modifying of numbers, to the taming of our passions, or the repressing of our lusts? The philosopher proves the body of the sun to be large, but for the true dimensions of it we must ask the mathematician: geometry and music, if they do not teach us to master our hopes and fears, all the rest is to little purpose. What does it concern us which was the elder of the two, Homer or Hesiod? or which was the taller, Helen or Hecuba? We take a great deal of pains to trace Ulysses in his wanderings, but were it not time as well spent to look to ourselves that we may not wander at all? Are not we ourselves tossed with tempestuous passions? and both assaulted by terrible monsters on the one hand, and tempted by syrens on the other? Teach me my duty to my country, to my father, to my wife, to mankind. What is it to me whether Penelope was honest or not? teach me to know how to be so myself, and to live according to that knowledge. What am I the better for putting so many parts together in music, and raising a harmony out of so many different tones? teach me to tune my affections, and to hold constant to myself. Geometry teaches me the art of measuring acres; teach me to measure my appetites, and to know when I have enough; teach me to divide with my brother, and to rejoice in the prosperity of my neighbor. You teach me how I may hold my own, and keep my estate; but I would rather learn how I may lose it all, and yet be contented. “It is hard,” you will say, “for a man to be forced from the fortune of his family.” This estate, it is true, was my father’s; but whose was it in the time of my grandfather? I do not only say, what man’s was it? but what nation’s? The astrologer tells me of Saturn and Mars in opposition; but I say, let them be as they will, their courses and their positions are ordered them by an unchangeable decree of fate. Either they produce and point out the effects of all things, or else they signify them; if the former, what are we the better for the knowledge of that which must of necessity come to pass? If the latter, what does it avail us to foresee what we cannot avoid? So that whether we know or not know, the event will still be the same.
Here's my opinion on the liberal arts: I don't think much of any study that only leads to profit or money. Still, I'll admit they have some value as long as they prepare the mind without holding it back. They're just the basics of wisdom. We should only learn them when our minds can't handle anything better. Keeping this knowledge is more worthwhile than getting it in the first place. These subjects don't even claim to make us virtuous. They only give us the right attitude to become virtuous. A grammarian deals with sentence structure. If he moves on to history or measuring poetry, he's reached his limit. But what good does proper sentence flow, counting syllables, or arranging numbers do for controlling our emotions or restraining our desires? A philosopher proves the sun is large, but we need a mathematician for its true size. If geometry and music don't teach us to master our hopes and fears, everything else is pointless. What does it matter to us which came first, Homer or Hesiod? Or which was taller, Helen or Hecuba? We work hard to trace Ulysses through his travels, but wouldn't our time be better spent making sure we don't wander ourselves? Aren't we tossed around by stormy emotions? Don't we face terrible monsters on one side and tempting sirens on the other? Teach me my duty to my country, my father, my wife, and humanity. What do I care whether Penelope was faithful? Teach me how to be faithful myself and live by that knowledge. How does it help me to put musical parts together and create harmony from different notes? Teach me to tune my emotions and stay true to myself. Geometry teaches me to measure land. Teach me to measure my desires and know when I have enough. Teach me to share with my brother and celebrate my neighbor's success. You teach me how to hold onto my property and keep my wealth. But I'd rather learn how to lose it all and still be content. "It's hard," you'll say, "for someone to be stripped of his family's fortune." True, this estate was my father's. But whose was it in my grandfather's time? I'm not just asking what man owned it, but what nation? An astrologer tells me about Saturn and Mars in opposition. But I say, let them be however they are. Their paths and positions are set by fate's unchangeable law. Either they cause and reveal the effects of everything, or they just signal them. If they cause events, how does knowing about something that must happen help us? If they only signal events, what good does it do to foresee what we can't avoid? Whether we know or don't know, the outcome stays the same.
He that designs the institution of human life should not be over-curious of his words; it does not stand with his dignity to be solicitous about sounds and syllables, and to debase the mind of man with trivial things; placing wisdom in matters that are rather difficult than great. If it be eloquent, it is his good fortune, not his business. Subtle disputations are only the sport of wits, that play upon the catch, and are fitter to be contemned than resolved. Were not I a madman to sit wrangling about words, and putting of nice and impertinent questions, when the enemy has already made the breach, the town fired over my head, and the mine ready to play that shall blow me up into the air? were this a time for fooleries? Let me rather fortify myself against death and inevitable necessities; let me understand that the good of life does not consist in the length or space, but in the use of it. When I go to sleep, who knows whether I shall ever wake again? and when I wake, whether ever I shall sleep again? When I go abroad, whether ever I shall come home again? and when I return, whether ever I shall go abroad again? It is not at sea only that life and death are within a few inches one of another; but they are as near everywhere else too, only we do not take so much notice of it. What have we to do with frivolous and captious questions, and impertinent niceties? Let us rather study how to deliver ourselves from sadness, fear, and the burden of all our secret lusts: let us pass over all our most solemn levities, and make haste to a good life, which is a thing that presses us. Shall a man that goes for a midwife, stand gaping upon a post to see what play to-day? or, when his house is on fire, stay the curling of a periwig before he calls for help? Our houses are on fire, our country invaded, our goods taken away, our children in danger; and, I might add to these, the calamities of earthquakes, shipwrecks, and whatever else is most terrible. Is this a time for us now to be playing fast and loose with idle questions, which are in effect so many unprofitable riddles? Our duty is the cure of the mind rather than the delight of it; but we have only the words of wisdom without the works; and turn philosophy into a pleasure that was given for a remedy. What can be more ridiculous than for a man to neglect his manners and compose his style? We are sick and ulcerous, and must be lanced and scarified, and every man has as much business within himself as a physician in a common pestilence. “Misfortunes,” in fine, “cannot be avoided; but they may be sweetened, if not overcome; and our lives may be made happy by philosophy.”
Anyone who wants to guide human life shouldn't worry too much about fancy words. It doesn't fit his dignity to fuss over sounds and syllables, or to lower the human mind with trivial things by placing wisdom in matters that are difficult rather than important. If he speaks eloquently, that's his good luck, not his job. Clever arguments are just games for smart people who like to play with words. They deserve contempt, not serious answers. Would I be crazy to sit here arguing about words and asking pointless, irrelevant questions when the enemy has already broken through the walls, the town is burning over my head, and the bomb is ready to explode and blow me into the air? Is this really the time for foolishness? I should prepare myself for death and unavoidable hardships instead. I need to understand that a good life isn't measured by how long it lasts, but by how we use it. When I go to sleep, who knows if I'll ever wake up again? When I wake up, will I ever sleep again? When I leave home, will I ever return? When I come back, will I ever leave again? It's not just at sea that life and death are inches apart. They're that close everywhere else too, but we just don't notice it as much. Why should we bother with silly, fault-finding questions and pointless details? We should study how to free ourselves from sadness, fear, and the weight of all our secret desires instead. Let's skip over all our most serious foolishness and hurry toward a good life, which is what really matters. Should a man going to help deliver a baby stop to stare at a poster advertising today's play? Or when his house is on fire, should he stop to curl his wig before calling for help? Our houses are burning, our country is invaded, our possessions are stolen, our children are in danger. I could add earthquakes, shipwrecks, and whatever else is most terrible. Is this really the time to play games with idle questions that are basically useless riddles? Our job is to heal the mind, not just entertain it. But we only have the words of wisdom without the actions. We've turned philosophy into entertainment when it was meant to be medicine. What could be more ridiculous than for someone to ignore his character while perfecting his writing style? We are sick and full of sores. We need to be cut open and treated, and every person has as much work to do on himself as a doctor during a plague. In the end, misfortunes can't be avoided, but they can be made bearable, if not overcome. Philosophy can make our lives happy.