“But it is now time to explain to you the mutual intercourse of this people, their commerce, and the rules by which all things are distributed among them.
“But now it is time to explain how these people interact and trade with one another. I will also explain the rules for distributing all things among them.
“As their cities are composed of families, so their families are made up of those that are nearly related to one another. Their women, when they grow up, are married out, but all the males, both children and grand-children, live still in the same house, in great obedience to their common parent, unless age has weakened his understanding, and in that case he that is next to him in age comes in his room; but lest any city should become either too great, or by any accident be dispeopled, provision is made that none of their cities may contain above six thousand families, besides those of the country around it. No family may have less than ten and more than sixteen persons in it, but there can be no determined number for the children under age; this rule is easily observed by removing some of the children of a more fruitful couple to any other family that does not abound so much in them. By the same rule they supply cities that do not increase so fast from others that breed faster; and if there is any increase over the whole island, then they draw out a number of their citizens out of the several towns and send them over to the neighbouring continent, where, if they find that the inhabitants have more soil than they can well cultivate, they fix a colony, taking the inhabitants into their society if they are willing to live with them; and where they do that of their own accord, they quickly enter into their method of life and conform to their rules, and this proves a happiness to both nations; for, according to their constitution, such care is taken of the soil that it becomes fruitful enough for both, though it might be otherwise too narrow and barren for any one of them. But if the natives refuse to conform themselves to their laws they drive them out of those bounds which they mark out for themselves, and use force if they resist, for they account it a very just cause of war for a nation to hinder others from possessing a part of that soil of which they make no use, but which is suffered to lie idle and uncultivated, since every man has, by the law of nature, a right to such a waste portion of the earth as is necessary for his subsistence. If an accident has so lessened the number of the inhabitants of any of their towns that it cannot be made up from the other towns of the island without diminishing them too much (which is said to have fallen out but twice since they were first a people, when great numbers were carried off by the plague), the loss is then supplied by recalling as many as are wanted from their colonies, for they will abandon these rather than suffer the towns in the island to sink too low.
“Just as their cities consist of families, their families consist of close relatives. When their women grow up, they marry and leave the household. All the men and boys, both sons and grandsons, continue to live in the same house. They strictly obey the head of the family, unless old age has weakened his judgment. In that case, the next oldest man takes his place. They take steps to prevent any city from becoming too large or losing too many people through some misfortune. No city may contain more than six thousand families, not counting those in the surrounding countryside. Each family must have between ten and sixteen adults, but there is no fixed limit on children. They easily maintain this rule by moving children from couples with many children to families with fewer. In the same way, they move people from faster-growing cities to those whose populations grow more slowly. If the population of the whole island grows beyond these limits, they select citizens from several towns. They send them to the neighboring continent to establish a colony. They settle where the inhabitants have more land than they can properly cultivate. They welcome the inhabitants into their community if they are willing to live with them. Those who join willingly soon adopt their way of life and follow their rules. This benefits both peoples. Under their system, the land is tended so carefully that it produces enough for both. Otherwise, it might be too small and barren to support even one of them. But if the native inhabitants refuse to follow their laws, they drive them out of the territory they claim. If the inhabitants resist, they use force. They consider it entirely just to wage war against a nation that prevents others from occupying its unused land. This applies to land left idle and uncultivated. They believe natural law gives everyone a right to enough of this unused land to support themselves. Sometimes a disaster reduces a town’s population beyond what the other towns can replace without losing too many people themselves. This is said to have happened only twice since they first became a people. On both occasions, the plague killed great numbers. In such cases, they recall as many people as needed from their colonies. They would rather abandon the colonies than let the towns on the island lose too many inhabitants.
“But to return to their manner of living in society: the oldest man of every family, as has been already said, is its governor; wives serve their husbands, and children their parents, and always the younger serves the elder. Every city is divided into four equal parts, and in the middle of each there is a market-place. What is brought thither, and manufactured by the several families, is carried from thence to houses appointed for that purpose, in which all things of a sort are laid by themselves; and thither every father goes, and takes whatsoever he or his family stand in need of, without either paying for it or leaving anything in exchange. There is no reason for giving a denial to any person, since there is such plenty of everything among them; and there is no danger of a man’s asking for more than he needs; they have no inducements to do this, since they are sure they shall always be supplied: it is the fear of want that makes any of the whole race of animals either greedy or ravenous; but, besides fear, there is in man a pride that makes him fancy it a particular glory to excel others in pomp and excess; but by the laws of the Utopians, there is no room for this. Near these markets there are others for all sorts of provisions, where there are not only herbs, fruits, and bread, but also fish, fowl, and cattle. There are also, without their towns, places appointed near some running water for killing their beasts and for washing away their filth, which is done by their slaves; for they suffer none of their citizens to kill their cattle, because they think that pity and good-nature, which are among the best of those affections that are born with us, are much impaired by the butchering of animals; nor do they suffer anything that is foul or unclean to be brought within their towns, lest the air should be infected by ill-smells, which might prejudice their health. In every street there are great halls, that lie at an equal distance from each other, distinguished by particular names. The Syphogrants dwell in those that are set over thirty families, fifteen lying on one side of it, and as many on the other. In these halls they all meet and have their repasts; the stewards of every one of them come to the market-place at an appointed hour, and according to the number of those that belong to the hall they carry home provisions. But they take more care of their sick than of any others; these are lodged and provided for in public hospitals. They have belonging to every town four hospitals, that are built without their walls, and are so large that they may pass for little towns; by this means, if they had ever such a number of sick persons, they could lodge them conveniently, and at such a distance that such of them as are sick of infectious diseases may be kept so far from the rest that there can be no danger of contagion. The hospitals are furnished and stored with all things that are convenient for the ease and recovery of the sick; and those that are put in them are looked after with such tender and watchful care, and are so constantly attended by their skilful physicians, that as none is sent to them against their will, so there is scarce one in a whole town that, if he should fall ill, would not choose rather to go thither than lie sick at home.
“But to return to how they live together: the oldest man in each family is its head, as already noted. Wives serve their husbands, children serve their parents, and younger people always serve their elders. Every city is divided into four equal parts, each with a marketplace at its center. Goods made by the different families are brought there, then taken to storehouses set aside for this purpose. In these buildings, goods of each kind are stored together. Every father goes there and takes whatever he or his family needs, without paying or giving anything in exchange. There is no reason to refuse anyone, since they have such an abundance of everything. Nor is there any danger of anyone asking for more than he needs. They have no reason to do so, since they know they will always be supplied. Fear of going without makes any animal greedy or ravenous. Besides fear, however, humans have pride, which makes them think outdoing others in luxury and excess brings special glory. But the laws of the Utopians leave no room for this. Near these markets are others selling all kinds of food, including herbs, fruit, bread, fish, poultry, and cattle. Outside their towns, near running water, are places set aside for slaughtering animals and washing away the waste. Their slaves do this work. They allow none of their citizens to slaughter cattle. They believe killing animals greatly weakens compassion and kindness, which are among our best natural qualities. Nor do they allow anything filthy or unclean into their towns. They fear that bad smells might pollute the air and harm their health. Every street has large halls, spaced at equal distances and each given its own name. The Syphogrants live in these halls, each overseeing thirty families, fifteen on either side. All these families gather in the halls for their meals. The stewards of each hall come to the marketplace at a set hour. They take home food according to the number of people belonging to their hall. But they take greater care of the sick than of anyone else. The sick are housed and cared for in public hospitals. Each town has four hospitals outside its walls, so large that they could be mistaken for small towns. However many people become sick, these hospitals can house them comfortably, with plenty of space between them. Those with infectious diseases can therefore be kept far enough from the others to prevent any danger of contagion. The hospitals have all the equipment and supplies needed for the comfort and recovery of the sick. Patients receive such gentle, attentive care and such constant attention from skilled doctors that almost everyone prefers them. No one is sent there against their will. Yet hardly anyone in the whole town would choose to stay home when sick rather than go to a hospital.
“After the steward of the hospitals has taken for the sick whatsoever the physician prescribes, then the best things that are left in the market are distributed equally among the halls in proportion to their numbers; only, in the first place, they serve the Prince, the Chief Priest, the Tranibors, the Ambassadors, and strangers, if there are any, which, indeed, falls out but seldom, and for whom there are houses, well furnished, particularly appointed for their reception when they come among them. At the hours of dinner and supper the whole Syphogranty being called together by sound of trumpet, they meet and eat together, except only such as are in the hospitals or lie sick at home. Yet, after the halls are served, no man is hindered to carry provisions home from the market-place, for they know that none does that but for some good reason; for though any that will may eat at home, yet none does it willingly, since it is both ridiculous and foolish for any to give themselves the trouble to make ready an ill dinner at home when there is a much more plentiful one made ready for him so near hand. All the uneasy and sordid services about these halls are performed by their slaves; but the dressing and cooking their meat, and the ordering their tables, belong only to the women, all those of every family taking it by turns. They sit at three or more tables, according to their number; the men sit towards the wall, and the women sit on the other side, that if any of them should be taken suddenly ill, which is no uncommon case amongst women with child, she may, without disturbing the rest, rise and go to the nurses’ room (who are there with the sucking children), where there is always clean water at hand and cradles, in which they may lay the young children if there is occasion for it, and a fire, that they may shift and dress them before it. Every child is nursed by its own mother if death or sickness does not intervene; and in that case the Syphogrants’ wives find out a nurse quickly, which is no hard matter, for any one that can do it offers herself cheerfully; for as they are much inclined to that piece of mercy, so the child whom they nurse considers the nurse as its mother. All the children under five years old sit among the nurses; the rest of the younger sort of both sexes, till they are fit for marriage, either serve those that sit at table, or, if they are not strong enough for that, stand by them in great silence and eat what is given them; nor have they any other formality of dining. In the middle of the first table, which stands across the upper end of the hall, sit the Syphogrant and his wife, for that is the chief and most conspicuous place; next to him sit two of the most ancient, for there go always four to a mess. If there is a temple within the Syphogranty, the Priest and his wife sit with the Syphogrant above all the rest; next them there is a mixture of old and young, who are so placed that as the young are set near others, so they are mixed with the more ancient; which, they say, was appointed on this account: that the gravity of the old people, and the reverence that is due to them, might restrain the younger from all indecent words and gestures. Dishes are not served up to the whole table at first, but the best are first set before the old, whose seats are distinguished from the young, and, after them, all the rest are served alike. The old men distribute to the younger any curious meats that happen to be set before them, if there is not such an abundance of them that the whole company may be served alike.
“After the hospital steward takes whatever the physician prescribes for the sick, the best remaining market goods go to the halls. Each hall receives an equal share in proportion to the number of people it serves. First, however, they provide for the Prince, the Chief Priest, the Tranibors, the Ambassadors, and any foreign visitors. Such visitors are rare. Well-furnished houses are set aside especially to receive them. At dinner and supper, a trumpet calls together everyone in the Syphogranty, the district overseen by a Syphogrant. They meet and eat together, except those in hospitals or sick at home. Once the halls have received their supplies, no one is stopped from taking provisions home from the marketplace. They know that no one does this without a good reason. Anyone may eat at home, but no one willingly chooses to do so. They consider it ridiculous and foolish to go to the trouble of preparing a poor dinner at home. A much more plentiful meal is already waiting nearby. All the unpleasant and dirty work in these halls is done by their slaves. But preparing and cooking the food and arranging the tables are tasks reserved for women. The women of every household take turns doing this work. They sit at three or more tables, depending on their numbers. The men sit against the wall, and the women sit on the other side. This lets any woman who suddenly feels ill leave without disturbing the others. Such illness is not uncommon among pregnant women. She can go to the nurses’ room, where the nurses stay with the nursing infants. Clean water and cradles are always available there, so they can put the young children down when needed. There is also a fire beside which they can change and dress them. Every child is breastfed by its own mother unless death or illness prevents it. In that case, the Syphogrants’ wives quickly find a wet nurse. This is easy, since any woman able to nurse the child gladly volunteers. They are strongly inclined toward this act of kindness, and the child regards its nurse as its mother. All children under five sit among the nurses. The other young people of both sexes serve those seated at the tables until they are old enough to marry. Those not strong enough to serve stand beside the diners in complete silence and eat whatever they are given. They have no other arrangement for dining. The Syphogrant and his wife sit in the middle of the first table, across the head of the hall. This is the place of greatest honor and prominence. Two of the oldest people sit beside him, since they always dine in groups of four. If the Syphogranty has a temple, the Priest and his wife sit with the Syphogrant, above everyone else. Beyond them, old and young sit together. Young people sit near one another, but older people are also placed among them. They say this arrangement allows the seriousness of the old, and the respect owed them, to restrain the young. It keeps them from using improper words or gestures. The dishes are not served to the whole table at once. The best are first placed before the old, whose seats are set apart from those of the young. Afterward, everyone else is served alike. The old men share any special delicacies placed before them with the younger people. They do this whenever there is not enough for everyone to receive an equal share.”
“Thus old men are honoured with a particular respect, yet all the rest fare as well as they. Both dinner and supper are begun with some lecture of morality that is read to them; but it is so short that it is not tedious nor uneasy to them to hear it. From hence the old men take occasion to entertain those about them with some useful and pleasant enlargements; but they do not engross the whole discourse so to themselves during their meals that the younger may not put in for a share; on the contrary, they engage them to talk, that so they may, in that free way of conversation, find out the force of every one’s spirit and observe his temper. They despatch their dinners quickly, but sit long at supper, because they go to work after the one, and are to sleep after the other, during which they think the stomach carries on the concoction more vigorously. They never sup without music, and there is always fruit served up after meat; while they are at table some burn perfumes and sprinkle about fragrant ointments and sweet waters—in short, they want nothing that may cheer up their spirits; they give themselves a large allowance that way, and indulge themselves in all such pleasures as are attended with no inconvenience. Thus do those that are in the towns live together; but in the country, where they live at a great distance, every one eats at home, and no family wants any necessary sort of provision, for it is from them that provisions are sent unto those that live in the towns.
“Old men are treated with special respect, but everyone else eats just as well as they do. Both dinner and supper begin with a reading on moral conduct. It is short enough that no one finds it tiresome or unpleasant to hear. The old men use it to begin useful and enjoyable discussions with those around them. But they do not dominate the conversation during meals or keep the young from taking part. Instead, they encourage the young to speak. Through this free conversation, they discover each person’s mental abilities and observe their character. They eat dinner quickly but spend longer at supper. After dinner they return to work, while after supper they go to sleep. They believe the stomach digests food more vigorously during sleep. They always have music at supper, and fruit is always served after the main meal. While they eat, some burn incense and sprinkle fragrant oils and scented waters around the room. In short, they lack nothing that might lift their spirits. They freely enjoy these comforts and allow themselves every pleasure that causes no harm or trouble. This is how people in the towns live together. In the countryside, people live far apart, so everyone eats at home. No family lacks any necessary food supplies. Indeed, it is these families who supply food to the people living in the towns.”