“They do not make slaves of prisoners of war, except those that are taken in battle, nor of the sons of their slaves, nor of those of other nations: the slaves among them are only such as are condemned to that state of life for the commission of some crime, or, which is more common, such as their merchants find condemned to die in those parts to which they trade, whom they sometimes redeem at low rates, and in other places have them for nothing. They are kept at perpetual labour, and are always chained, but with this difference, that their own natives are treated much worse than others: they are considered as more profligate than the rest, and since they could not be restrained by the advantages of so excellent an education, are judged worthy of harder usage. Another sort of slaves are the poor of the neighbouring countries, who offer of their own accord to come and serve them: they treat these better, and use them in all other respects as well as their own countrymen, except their imposing more labour upon them, which is no hard task to those that have been accustomed to it; and if any of these have a mind to go back to their own country, which, indeed, falls out but seldom, as they do not force them to stay, so they do not send them away empty-handed.
“They do not enslave prisoners of war unless they were captured in battle. Nor do they enslave the children of their slaves or people already enslaved in other nations. Their slaves are only people sentenced to slavery for a crime, or, more commonly, those sentenced to death abroad. Their merchants find these people in the countries where they trade. Sometimes they buy them cheaply, and elsewhere they get them for nothing. They are forced to work constantly and are always chained. But enslaved people from their own country are treated much worse than the others. They are considered more corrupt than the rest. Despite the benefits of such an excellent education, they could not be kept from crime. They are therefore judged to deserve harsher treatment. Another group of slaves consists of poor people from neighboring countries who willingly come to serve them. They treat these people better, and in all other respects as well as their own citizens. The only exception is that they make them work more. This is no hardship for people accustomed to such work. If any wish to return to their own country, which rarely happens, they do not force them to stay. Nor do they send them away empty-handed.
“I have already told you with what care they look after their sick, so that nothing is left undone that can contribute either to their ease or health; and for those who are taken with fixed and incurable diseases, they use all possible ways to cherish them and to make their lives as comfortable as possible. They visit them often and take great pains to make their time pass off easily; but when any is taken with a torturing and lingering pain, so that there is no hope either of recovery or ease, the priests and magistrates come and exhort them, that, since they are now unable to go on with the business of life, are become a burden to themselves and to all about them, and they have really out-lived themselves, they should no longer nourish such a rooted distemper, but choose rather to die since they cannot live but in much misery; being assured that if they thus deliver themselves from torture, or are willing that others should do it, they shall be happy after death: since, by their acting thus, they lose none of the pleasures, but only the troubles of life, they think they behave not only reasonably but in a manner consistent with religion and piety; because they follow the advice given them by their priests, who are the expounders of the will of God. Such as are wrought on by these persuasions either starve themselves of their own accord, or take opium, and by that means die without pain. But no man is forced on this way of ending his life; and if they cannot be persuaded to it, this does not induce them to fail in their attendance and care of them: but as they believe that a voluntary death, when it is chosen upon such an authority, is very honourable, so if any man takes away his own life without the approbation of the priests and the senate, they give him none of the honours of a decent funeral, but throw his body into a ditch.
“I have already told you how carefully they look after the sick. They leave nothing undone that could improve their comfort or health. For those with lasting, incurable diseases, they do everything possible to comfort them and make their lives easier. They visit them often and take great care to help them pass the time pleasantly. But some suffer prolonged, agonizing pain, with no hope of recovery or relief. The priests and magistrates visit these patients and urge them to consider their condition. They can no longer carry on with life’s activities. They have become a burden to themselves and everyone around them, and have effectively outlived their own lives. They should stop sustaining such a deeply rooted disease and choose death instead, since living brings them only great misery. They are assured of happiness after death if they free themselves from torture or willingly let others do so. By doing this, they lose none of life’s pleasures, only its troubles. They therefore believe this choice is not only reasonable but also religious and devout. They are following the advice of their priests, who interpret the will of God. Those persuaded by these arguments either willingly starve themselves or take opium, which allows them to die without pain. But no one is forced to end their life this way. If they refuse, this does not lessen the attention and care they receive. They consider voluntary death very honorable when chosen with this approval. But anyone who takes their own life without approval from the priests and senate receives no proper funeral honors. Instead, their body is thrown into a ditch.
“Their women are not married before eighteen nor their men before two-and-twenty, and if any of them run into forbidden embraces before marriage they are severely punished, and the privilege of marriage is denied them unless they can obtain a special warrant from the Prince. Such disorders cast a great reproach upon the master and mistress of the family in which they happen, for it is supposed that they have failed in their duty. The reason of punishing this so severely is, because they think that if they were not strictly restrained from all vagrant appetites, very few would engage in a state in which they venture the quiet of their whole lives, by being confined to one person, and are obliged to endure all the inconveniences with which it is accompanied. In choosing their wives they use a method that would appear to us very absurd and ridiculous, but it is constantly observed among them, and is accounted perfectly consistent with wisdom. Before marriage some grave matron presents the bride, naked, whether she is a virgin or a widow, to the bridegroom, and after that some grave man presents the bridegroom, naked, to the bride. We, indeed, both laughed at this, and condemned it as very indecent. But they, on the other hand, wondered at the folly of the men of all other nations, who, if they are but to buy a horse of a small value, are so cautious that they will see every part of him, and take off both his saddle and all his other tackle, that there may be no secret ulcer hid under any of them, and that yet in the choice of a wife, on which depends the happiness or unhappiness of the rest of his life, a man should venture upon trust, and only see about a handsbreadth of the face, all the rest of the body being covered, under which may lie hid what may be contagious as well as loathsome. All men are not so wise as to choose a woman only for her good qualities, and even wise men consider the body as that which adds not a little to the mind, and it is certain there may be some such deformity covered with clothes as may totally alienate a man from his wife, when it is too late to part with her; if such a thing is discovered after marriage a man has no remedy but patience; they, therefore, think it is reasonable that there should be good provision made against such mischievous frauds.
“Their women do not marry before eighteen, nor their men before twenty-two. Anyone who has sex before marriage is severely punished. They are also denied permission to marry unless they obtain special authorization from the Prince. Such misconduct brings great shame on the master and mistress of the household where it occurs. They are considered to have failed in their duty. The punishment is so severe because they believe sexual desires must be strictly restrained. Otherwise, very few would enter marriage. In marriage, people risk their lifelong peace by committing themselves to one person and accepting all its difficulties. When choosing wives, they follow a practice that would seem very absurd and ridiculous to us. Yet they always observe it and consider it perfectly wise. Before the wedding, a respectable older woman presents the bride naked to the bridegroom, whether she is a virgin or widow. Then a respectable older man presents the bridegroom naked to the bride. We both laughed at this and condemned it as very indecent. They, however, were amazed at the foolishness of men in all other nations. Even when buying a horse of little value, these men take great care to inspect every part of it. They remove its saddle and all its other equipment to ensure that no hidden sore lies underneath. Yet when choosing a wife, a man is willing to rely on trust. The happiness or unhappiness of the rest of his life depends on that choice. Still, he sees only a hand’s breadth of her face. The rest of her body is covered, concealing what may be both contagious and repulsive. Not all men are wise enough to choose a woman solely for her good qualities. Even wise men consider physical beauty a significant addition to a good mind. Certainly, clothing may hide a deformity that could turn a man completely against his wife. By the time he discovers it, it may be too late to leave her. If such a thing is discovered after marriage, a man can do nothing but bear it patiently. They therefore think it reasonable to take careful precautions against such harmful deception.”
“There was so much the more reason for them to make a regulation in this matter, because they are the only people of those parts that neither allow of polygamy nor of divorces, except in the case of adultery or insufferable perverseness, for in these cases the Senate dissolves the marriage and grants the injured person leave to marry again; but the guilty are made infamous and are never allowed the privilege of a second marriage. None are suffered to put away their wives against their wills, from any great calamity that may have fallen on their persons, for they look on it as the height of cruelty and treachery to abandon either of the married persons when they need most the tender care of their consort, and that chiefly in the case of old age, which, as it carries many diseases along with it, so it is a disease of itself. But it frequently falls out that when a married couple do not well agree, they, by mutual consent, separate, and find out other persons with whom they hope they may live more happily; yet this is not done without obtaining leave of the Senate, which never admits of a divorce but upon a strict inquiry made, both by the senators and their wives, into the grounds upon which it is desired, and even when they are satisfied concerning the reasons of it they go on but slowly, for they imagine that too great easiness in granting leave for new marriages would very much shake the kindness of married people. They punish severely those that defile the marriage bed; if both parties are married they are divorced, and the injured persons may marry one another, or whom they please, but the adulterer and the adulteress are condemned to slavery, yet if either of the injured persons cannot shake off the love of the married person they may live with them still in that state, but they must follow them to that labour to which the slaves are condemned, and sometimes the repentance of the condemned, together with the unshaken kindness of the innocent and injured person, has prevailed so far with the Prince that he has taken off the sentence; but those that relapse after they are once pardoned are punished with death.
“They had all the more reason to make a rule about this. They are the only people in those parts who allow neither polygamy nor divorce, except for adultery or intolerable misconduct. In these cases, the Senate ends the marriage and allows the wronged person to marry again. But the guilty are publicly disgraced and never allowed to remarry. No man may send his wife away against her will because some great misfortune has affected her body. They consider it the height of cruelty and betrayal to abandon a spouse who most needs loving care. This is especially true in old age, which brings many illnesses and is itself an illness. But couples who do not get along often agree to separate. They find other people with whom they hope to live more happily. Yet they must first obtain the Senate’s permission. The Senate never grants a divorce without a thorough inquiry into the reasons, conducted by senators and their wives. Even when satisfied with the reasons, they proceed slowly. They believe that making remarriage too easy would seriously weaken the affection between married people. They severely punish those who commit adultery. If both offenders are married, their marriages are dissolved. The wronged spouses may marry each other or anyone else they choose. But the adulterous man and woman are sentenced to slavery. If either wronged spouse still loves the guilty partner, they may continue living together while that partner remains enslaved. But the innocent spouse must join the guilty partner in the labor imposed on slaves. Sometimes the guilty person’s repentance, together with the wronged spouse’s unwavering affection, has persuaded the Prince to lift the sentence. But those who offend again after being pardoned are put to death.”
“Their law does not determine the punishment for other crimes, but that is left to the Senate, to temper it according to the circumstances of the fact. Husbands have power to correct their wives and parents to chastise their children, unless the fault is so great that a public punishment is thought necessary for striking terror into others. For the most part slavery is the punishment even of the greatest crimes, for as that is no less terrible to the criminals themselves than death, so they think the preserving them in a state of servitude is more for the interest of the commonwealth than killing them, since, as their labour is a greater benefit to the public than their death could be, so the sight of their misery is a more lasting terror to other men than that which would be given by their death. If their slaves rebel, and will not bear their yoke and submit to the labour that is enjoined them, they are treated as wild beasts that cannot be kept in order, neither by a prison nor by their chains, and are at last put to death. But those who bear their punishment patiently, and are so much wrought on by that pressure that lies so hard on them, that it appears they are really more troubled for the crimes they have committed than for the miseries they suffer, are not out of hope, but that, at last, either the Prince will, by his prerogative, or the people, by their intercession, restore them again to their liberty, or, at least, very much mitigate their slavery. He that tempts a married woman to adultery is no less severely punished than he that commits it, for they believe that a deliberate design to commit a crime is equal to the fact itself, since its not taking effect does not make the person that miscarried in his attempt at all the less guilty.
“Their law does not set punishments for other crimes. That is left to the Senate, which adjusts the punishment to the circumstances of each case. Husbands have the power to discipline their wives, and parents to punish their children. But an offense may be so serious that public punishment is considered necessary to frighten others. Slavery is the usual punishment even for the greatest crimes. They consider it no less terrifying to criminals than death. They also believe keeping criminals as slaves serves the commonwealth better than killing them. Their labor benefits the public more than their deaths could. The sight of their suffering also frightens others longer than their execution would. If slaves rebel and refuse to submit to their assigned labor, they are treated like wild beasts. Neither prison nor chains can control them, and they are eventually put to death. But those who bear their punishment patiently still have hope. Their harsh suffering may make them clearly regret their crimes more than the misery they endure. In that case, the Prince may eventually use his authority to free them, or the people may appeal for their release. At least, the conditions of their slavery may be greatly eased. A man who tries to persuade a married woman to commit adultery is punished as severely as one who commits it. They believe that deliberately planning a crime is as serious as committing it. An attempt’s failure does not make the person who tried any less guilty.
“They take great pleasure in fools, and as it is thought a base and unbecoming thing to use them ill, so they do not think it amiss for people to divert themselves with their folly; and, in their opinion, this is a great advantage to the fools themselves; for if men were so sullen and severe as not at all to please themselves with their ridiculous behaviour and foolish sayings, which is all that they can do to recommend themselves to others, it could not be expected that they would be so well provided for nor so tenderly used as they must otherwise be. If any man should reproach another for his being misshaped or imperfect in any part of his body, it would not at all be thought a reflection on the person so treated, but it would be accounted scandalous in him that had upbraided another with what he could not help. It is thought a sign of a sluggish and sordid mind not to preserve carefully one’s natural beauty; but it is likewise infamous among them to use paint. They all see that no beauty recommends a wife so much to her husband as the probity of her life and her obedience; for as some few are caught and held only by beauty, so all are attracted by the other excellences which charm all the world.
“They take great pleasure in fools and consider it shameful and improper to treat them badly. Still, they see nothing wrong with people amusing themselves at their foolishness. In their view, this greatly benefits the fools themselves. Suppose people were so gloomy and stern that they took no pleasure in their ridiculous behavior and foolish sayings. These are the only things fools can offer to win others’ favor. Without them, they could not expect to be as well provided for or treated as gently as they otherwise would. If someone mocked another person for a physical deformity or disability, no one would consider it a disgrace to the victim. Instead, they would consider it shameful to mock someone for something beyond their control. They consider failing to care for one’s natural beauty a sign of a lazy and coarse mind. But they also consider wearing makeup disgraceful. They all recognize that nothing makes a wife more attractive to her husband than her upright conduct and obedience. A few men are won and kept by beauty alone. But all are attracted by those other virtues, which charm everyone.
“As they fright men from committing crimes by punishments, so they invite them to the love of virtue by public honours; therefore they erect statues to the memories of such worthy men as have deserved well of their country, and set these in their market-places, both to perpetuate the remembrance of their actions and to be an incitement to their posterity to follow their example.
“They use punishments to deter people from crime and public honors to encourage a love of virtue. They therefore erect statues in memory of worthy people who have served their country well. They place these in marketplaces to keep the memory of their deeds alive and encourage future generations to follow their example.
“If any man aspires to any office he is sure never to compass it. They all live easily together, for none of the magistrates are either insolent or cruel to the people; they affect rather to be called fathers, and, by being really so, they well deserve the name; and the people pay them all the marks of honour the more freely because none are exacted from them. The Prince himself has no distinction, either of garments or of a crown; but is only distinguished by a sheaf of corn carried before him; as the High Priest is also known by his being preceded by a person carrying a wax light.
“If any man seeks public office, he is certain never to get it. They all live comfortably together, since none of the magistrates are arrogant or cruel toward the people. They prefer to be called fathers, and they truly act as fathers, so they fully deserve the name. The people show them every mark of honor all the more freely because none is demanded of them. The Prince himself wears no distinctive clothing or crown. He is distinguished only by a sheaf of grain carried before him. Likewise, the High Priest is identified by someone walking before him, carrying a wax candle.
“They have but few laws, and such is their constitution that they need not many. They very much condemn other nations whose laws, together with the commentaries on them, swell up to so many volumes; for they think it an unreasonable thing to oblige men to obey a body of laws that are both of such a bulk, and so dark as not to be read and understood by every one of the subjects.
“They have few laws, and their system of government means they do not need many. They strongly condemn other nations whose laws and explanations of them fill so many volumes. They think it unreasonable to make people obey laws so lengthy and unclear that not every citizen can read and understand them.
“They have no lawyers among them, for they consider them as a sort of people whose profession it is to disguise matters and to wrest the laws, and, therefore, they think it is much better that every man should plead his own cause, and trust it to the judge, as in other places the client trusts it to a counsellor; by this means they both cut off many delays and find out truth more certainly; for after the parties have laid open the merits of the cause, without those artifices which lawyers are apt to suggest, the judge examines the whole matter, and supports the simplicity of such well-meaning persons, whom otherwise crafty men would be sure to run down; and thus they avoid those evils which appear very remarkably among all those nations that labour under a vast load of laws. Every one of them is skilled in their law; for, as it is a very short study, so the plainest meaning of which words are capable is always the sense of their laws; and they argue thus: all laws are promulgated for this end, that every man may know his duty; and, therefore, the plainest and most obvious sense of the words is that which ought to be put upon them, since a more refined exposition cannot be easily comprehended, and would only serve to make the laws become useless to the greater part of mankind, and especially to those who need most the direction of them; for it is all one not to make a law at all or to couch it in such terms that, without a quick apprehension and much study, a man cannot find out the true meaning of it, since the generality of mankind are both so dull, and so much employed in their several trades, that they have neither the leisure nor the capacity requisite for such an inquiry.
“They have no lawyers among them. They see lawyers as people whose profession is to obscure the facts and twist the laws. They therefore think it much better for everyone to argue their own case and entrust it to the judge. Elsewhere, clients entrust their cases to lawyers. This approach eliminates many delays and makes the truth more certain. Both sides present the facts of the case without the tricks lawyers tend to suggest. The judge then examines the whole matter and protects honest, straightforward people whom crafty opponents would otherwise overwhelm. In this way, they avoid the evils so clearly seen in all nations burdened with vast numbers of laws. Everyone among them knows their law well, since learning it takes very little time. They always interpret their laws according to the plainest possible meaning of the words. Their reasoning is this: all laws are published so that everyone may know their duty. Therefore, the words should be understood in their plainest and most obvious sense. A more elaborate interpretation is hard to understand. It would only make the laws useless to most people, especially those who most need their guidance. Making no law at all is no different from wording one so that understanding it requires quick thinking and extensive study. Most people are both too slow to understand and too busy with their trades. They have neither the spare time nor the ability needed to work out such a law’s true meaning.
“Some of their neighbours, who are masters of their own liberties (having long ago, by the assistance of the Utopians, shaken off the yoke of tyranny, and being much taken with those virtues which they observe among them), have come to desire that they would send magistrates to govern them, some changing them every year, and others every five years; at the end of their government they bring them back to Utopia, with great expressions of honour and esteem, and carry away others to govern in their stead. In this they seem to have fallen upon a very good expedient for their own happiness and safety; for since the good or ill condition of a nation depends so much upon their magistrates, they could not have made a better choice than by pitching on men whom no advantages can bias; for wealth is of no use to them, since they must so soon go back to their own country, and they, being strangers among them, are not engaged in any of their heats or animosities; and it is certain that when public judicatories are swayed, either by avarice or partial affections, there must follow a dissolution of justice, the chief sinew of society.
“Some of their neighbours are free and govern themselves, having long ago overthrown tyranny with the Utopians’ help. They greatly admire the virtues they see among the Utopians and have asked them to send magistrates to govern them. Some replace these officials every year, others every five years. When their terms end, they take them back to Utopia with great displays of honour and respect. They then bring back others to govern in their place. This seems a very good way to secure their own happiness and safety. A nation’s well-being depends so much on its magistrates that they could not have chosen better. These men cannot be swayed by personal gain. Wealth is useless to them, since they must return so soon to their own country. As foreigners, they are not caught up in local conflicts or rivalries. When greed or favouritism sways the courts, justice is certain to break down. And justice is the chief bond holding society together.
“The Utopians call those nations that come and ask magistrates from them Neighbours; but those to whom they have been of more particular service, Friends; and as all other nations are perpetually either making leagues or breaking them, they never enter into an alliance with any state. They think leagues are useless things, and believe that if the common ties of humanity do not knit men together, the faith of promises will have no great effect; and they are the more confirmed in this by what they see among the nations round about them, who are no strict observers of leagues and treaties. We know how religiously they are observed in Europe, more particularly where the Christian doctrine is received, among whom they are sacred and inviolable! which is partly owing to the justice and goodness of the princes themselves, and partly to the reverence they pay to the popes, who, as they are the most religious observers of their own promises, so they exhort all other princes to perform theirs, and, when fainter methods do not prevail, they compel them to it by the severity of the pastoral censure, and think that it would be the most indecent thing possible if men who are particularly distinguished by the title of ‘The Faithful’ should not religiously keep the faith of their treaties. But in that new-found world, which is not more distant from us in situation than the people are in their manners and course of life, there is no trusting to leagues, even though they were made with all the pomp of the most sacred ceremonies; on the contrary, they are on this account the sooner broken, some slight pretence being found in the words of the treaties, which are purposely couched in such ambiguous terms that they can never be so strictly bound but they will always find some loophole to escape at, and thus they break both their leagues and their faith; and this is done with such impudence, that those very men who value themselves on having suggested these expedients to their princes would, with a haughty scorn, declaim against such craft; or, to speak plainer, such fraud and deceit, if they found private men make use of it in their bargains, and would readily say that they deserved to be hanged.
“The Utopians call nations that ask them to supply magistrates ‘Neighbours’. They call those they have helped in more specific ways ‘Friends’. All other nations are constantly making or breaking treaties, but the Utopians never form an alliance with any state. They consider treaties useless. They believe promises will do little if the shared bonds of humanity cannot unite people. What they see in surrounding nations strengthens this belief, since those nations do not strictly honor treaties and alliances. We know how faithfully treaties are honored in Europe, especially among nations that accept Christian teaching. There they are sacred and never broken! This is partly because of the justice and goodness of the rulers themselves. It is also partly because of their reverence for the popes. The popes keep their own promises with the greatest devotion and urge all other rulers to keep theirs. When gentler methods fail, they compel rulers to comply through severe church penalties. They consider it utterly shameful if people distinguished by the title ‘The Faithful’ fail to honor their treaties faithfully. But matters are different in that newly discovered world. Its people are as distant from us in customs and way of life as they are in location. There, treaties cannot be trusted, even when made with all the splendor of the most sacred ceremonies. On the contrary, such treaties are broken all the sooner. Some flimsy excuse is found in their wording, which is deliberately made ambiguous. No treaty can bind them so tightly that they cannot find a loophole to escape through. In this way, they break both their treaties and their word. They do this with astonishing shamelessness. The very men who pride themselves on suggesting these devices to their rulers would condemn such trickery in private business. They would denounce it with arrogant contempt if ordinary people used it in their agreements. To speak plainly, they would call it fraud and deceit, and readily say those people deserved to be hanged.”
“By this means it is that all sort of justice passes in the world for a low-spirited and vulgar virtue, far below the dignity of royal greatness—or at least there are set up two sorts of justice; the one is mean and creeps on the ground, and, therefore, becomes none but the lower part of mankind, and so must be kept in severely by many restraints, that it may not break out beyond the bounds that are set to it; the other is the peculiar virtue of princes, which, as it is more majestic than that which becomes the rabble, so takes a freer compass, and thus lawful and unlawful are only measured by pleasure and interest. These practices of the princes that lie about Utopia, who make so little account of their faith, seem to be the reasons that determine them to engage in no confederacy. Perhaps they would change their mind if they lived among us; but yet, though treaties were more religiously observed, they would still dislike the custom of making them, since the world has taken up a false maxim upon it, as if there were no tie of nature uniting one nation to another, only separated perhaps by a mountain or a river, and that all were born in a state of hostility, and so might lawfully do all that mischief to their neighbours against which there is no provision made by treaties; and that when treaties are made they do not cut off the enmity or restrain the licence of preying upon each other, if, by the unskilfulness of wording them, there are not effectual provisoes made against them; they, on the other hand, judge that no man is to be esteemed our enemy that has never injured us, and that the partnership of human nature is instead of a league; and that kindness and good nature unite men more effectually and with greater strength than any agreements whatsoever, since thereby the engagements of men’s hearts become stronger than the bond and obligation of words.
“In this way, all justice comes to be seen as a timid, common virtue, far beneath royal dignity. Or at least, two kinds of justice are established. One is lowly and crawls along the ground, fit only for the lower ranks of humanity. It must therefore be kept under strict control, so it cannot go beyond its assigned limits. The other is a virtue reserved for princes. It is grander than the justice suited to the common crowd, so it allows much greater freedom. What is lawful or unlawful is measured only by pleasure and self-interest. The princes around Utopia care so little about keeping their word. Their conduct seems to explain why the Utopians refuse to enter any alliances. Perhaps they would change their minds if they lived among us. Yet even if treaties were more faithfully observed, they would still dislike the practice of making them. The world has adopted a false principle about treaties. It assumes that no natural bond unites nations, even those separated only by a mountain or river. It assumes that all are born enemies. They may therefore lawfully inflict any harm on their neighbors that treaties do not forbid. Even when treaties are made, they do not end hostility or prevent nations from preying on one another. Unless their wording carefully and effectively forbids such actions, that freedom remains. The Utopians, by contrast, believe we should regard no one as an enemy who has never harmed us. They believe our shared humanity takes the place of a treaty. Kindness and goodwill unite people more effectively and firmly than any agreements whatsoever. They bind people’s hearts more strongly than words can bind them through promises and obligations.”