Black People and Native Americans

During the year that I spent in Washington, and for some little time before this, there had been considerable agitation in the state of West Virginia over the question of moving the capital of the state from Wheeling to some other central point. As a result of this, the Legislature designated three cities to be voted upon by the citizens of the state as the permanent seat of government. Among these cities was Charleston, only five miles from Malden, my home. At the close of my school year in Washington I was very pleasantly surprised to receive, from a committee of three white people in Charleston, an invitation to canvass the state in the interests of that city. This invitation I accepted, and spent nearly three months in speaking in various parts of the state. Charleston was successful in winning the prize, and is now the permanent seat of government.

During my year in Washington, and for some time before it, there had been much debate in West Virginia about moving the state capital from Wheeling to a more central location. As a result, the Legislature selected three cities for state residents to vote on as the permanent seat of government. One of them was Charleston, only five miles from my home in Malden. At the end of my school year in Washington, I received a very pleasant surprise. A committee of three white people in Charleston invited me to campaign across the state on behalf of their city. I accepted the invitation and spent nearly three months speaking in various parts of the state. Charleston won the vote and is now the permanent seat of government.

The reputation that I made as a speaker during this campaign induced a number of persons to make an earnest effort to get me to enter political life, but I refused, still believing that I could find other service which would prove of more permanent value to my race. Even then I had a strong feeling that what our people most needed was to get a foundation in education, industry, and property, and for this I felt that they could better afford to strive than for political preferment. As for my individual self, it appeared to me to be reasonably certain that I could succeed in political life, but I had a feeling that it would be a rather selfish kind of success—individual success at the cost of failing to do my duty in assisting in laying a foundation for the masses.

My reputation as a speaker during this campaign led several people to urge me strongly to enter politics. But I refused. I still believed I could serve my race in other ways that would have more lasting value. Even then, I felt strongly that our people most needed a foundation in education, industry, and property ownership. I believed they would do better to strive for these things than for political office. As for myself, I felt reasonably certain I could succeed in politics. But I also felt that such success would be rather selfish. It would be personal success at the cost of failing in my duty to help lay a foundation for the masses.

At this period in the progress of our race a very large proportion of the young men who went to school or to college did so with the expressed determination to prepare themselves to be great lawyers, or Congressmen, and many of the women planned to become music teachers; but I had a reasonably fixed idea, even at that early period in my life, that there was a need for something to be done to prepare the way for successful lawyers, Congressmen, and music teachers.

At this stage in the progress of our race, many young men went to school or college determined to become great lawyers or Congressmen. Many women planned to become music teachers. But even at that early age, I had a fairly firm idea that something needed to be done to prepare the way for successful lawyers, Congressmen, and music teachers.

I felt that the conditions were a good deal like those of an old coloured man, during the days of slavery, who wanted to learn how to play on the guitar. In his desire to take guitar lessons he applied to one of his young masters to teach him, but the young man, not having much faith in the ability of the slave to master the guitar at his age, sought to discourage him by telling him: “Uncle Jake, I will give you guitar lessons; but, Jake, I will have to charge you three dollars for the first lesson, two dollars for the second lesson, and one dollar for the third lesson. But I will charge you only twenty-five cents for the last lesson.”

I felt that the conditions were much like those of an old Black man during slavery who wanted to learn guitar. He asked one of his young masters to teach him. But the young man doubted that the enslaved man could master the guitar at his age. So he tried to discourage him, saying: “Uncle Jake, I will give you guitar lessons. But, Jake, I will have to charge you three dollars for the first lesson, two dollars for the second lesson, and one dollar for the third lesson. But I will charge you only twenty-five cents for the last lesson.”

Uncle Jake answered: “All right, boss, I hires you on dem terms. But, boss! I wants yer to be sure an’ give me dat las’ lesson first.”

Uncle Jake answered: “All right, boss, I’ll hire you on those terms. But, boss! Make sure you give me that last lesson first.”

Soon after my work in connection with the removal of the capital was finished, I received an invitation which gave me great joy and which at the same time was a very pleasant surprise. This was a letter from General Armstrong, inviting me to return to Hampton at the next Commencement to deliver what was called the “post-graduate address.” This was an honour which I had not dreamed of receiving. With much care I prepared the best address that I was capable of. I chose for my subject “The Force That Wins.”

Soon after I finished my work on moving the capital, I received an invitation that brought me great joy. It was also a very pleasant surprise. General Armstrong wrote to invite me back to Hampton for the next Commencement to give what was called the “post-graduate address.” I had never dreamed I would receive such an honor. I took great care to prepare the best address I could. I chose “The Force That Wins” as my subject.

As I returned to Hampton for the purpose of delivering this address, I went over much of the same ground—now, however, covered entirely by railroad—that I had traversed nearly six years before, when I first sought entrance into Hampton Institute as a student. Now I was able to ride the whole distance in the train. I was constantly contrasting this with my first journey to Hampton. I think I may say, without seeming egotism, that it is seldom that five years have wrought such a change in the life and aspirations of an individual.

When I returned to Hampton to give this address, I traveled much of the same route I had taken nearly six years earlier. Back then, I was seeking admission to Hampton Institute as a student. Now the entire route was covered by railroad, and I could ride the train the whole way. I kept comparing this trip with my first journey to Hampton. I think I can say, without seeming conceited, that five years rarely bring such a change in a person's life and ambitions.

At Hampton I received a warm welcome from teachers and students. I found that during my absence from Hampton the institute each year had been getting closer to the real needs and conditions of our people; that the industrial teaching, as well as that of the academic department, had greatly improved. The plan of the school was not modelled after that of any other institution then in existence, but every improvement was made under the magnificent leadership of General Armstrong solely with the view of meeting and helping the needs of our people as they presented themselves at the time. Too often, it seems to me, in missionary and educational work among underdeveloped races, people yield to the temptation of doing that which was done a hundred years before, or is being done in other communities a thousand miles away. The temptation often is to run each individual through a certain educational mould, regardless of the condition of the subject or the end to be accomplished. This was not so at Hampton Institute.

At Hampton, the teachers and students gave me a warm welcome. I found that during my absence, the institute had grown closer each year to the real needs and conditions of our people. Both its industrial and academic teaching had greatly improved. The school’s plan was not modeled on that of any other institution then in existence. Under General Armstrong’s magnificent leadership, every improvement was made solely to meet the needs of our people as those needs arose. Too often, it seems to me, people doing missionary and educational work among underdeveloped races are tempted to repeat what was done a hundred years earlier. Or they follow what is being done in other communities a thousand miles away. They are often tempted to put each person through the same educational mold, regardless of that person’s circumstances or the goal to be achieved. That was not the case at Hampton Institute.

The address which I delivered on Commencement Day seems to have pleased every one, and many kind and encouraging words were spoken to me regarding it. Soon after my return to my home in West Virginia, where I had planned to continue teaching, I was again surprised to receive a letter from General Armstrong, asking me to return to Hampton partly as a teacher and partly to pursue some supplementary studies. This was in the summer of 1879. Soon after I began my first teaching in West Virginia I had picked out four of the brightest and most promising of my pupils, in addition to my two brothers, to whom I have already referred, and had given them special attention, with the view of having them go to Hampton. They had gone there, and in each case the teachers had found them so well prepared that they entered advanced classes. This fact, it seems, led to my being called back to Hampton as a teacher. One of the young men that I sent to Hampton in this way is now Dr. Samuel E. Courtney, a successful physician in Boston, and a member of the School Board of that city.

The speech I gave on Commencement Day seemed to please everyone, and many people spoke kindly and encouragingly about it. Soon afterward, I returned home to West Virginia, where I planned to continue teaching. There, I was surprised to receive another letter from General Armstrong. He asked me to return to Hampton partly to teach and partly to do some additional studying. This was in the summer of 1879. Soon after I began teaching in West Virginia, I had chosen four of my brightest and most promising pupils. I gave them special attention, along with my two brothers, whom I have already mentioned. My aim was to prepare all six to go to Hampton. They went, and in every case, the teachers found them so well prepared that they entered advanced classes. This success seems to have led to my being called back to Hampton as a teacher. One of the young men I sent there is now Dr. Samuel E. Courtney, a successful physician in Boston. He is also a member of that city’s School Board.

About this time the experiment was being tried for the first time, by General Armstrong, of educating Indians at Hampton. Few people then had any confidence in the ability of the Indians to receive education and to profit by it. General Armstrong was anxious to try the experiment systematically on a large scale. He secured from the reservations in the Western states over one hundred wild and for the most part perfectly ignorant Indians, the greater proportion of whom were young men. The special work which the General desired me to do was to be a sort of “house father” to the Indian young men—that is, I was to live in the building with them and have the charge of their discipline, clothing, rooms, and so on. This was a very tempting offer, but I had become so much absorbed in my work in West Virginia that I dreaded to give it up. However, I tore myself away from it. I did not know how to refuse to perform any service that General Armstrong desired of me.

Around this time, General Armstrong began an experiment at Hampton to educate Native Americans. It was the first experiment of its kind. Few people then believed that Native Americans could receive an education and benefit from it. General Armstrong was eager to try the experiment systematically on a large scale. He brought over one hundred Native Americans from reservations in the Western states. He regarded them as wild and, for the most part, completely uneducated. Most of them were young men. The General wanted me to serve as a kind of “house father” to the young men. I would live in their building and be responsible for their discipline, clothing, rooms, and so on. The offer was very tempting, but I had become deeply absorbed in my work in West Virginia. I dreaded giving it up. Still, I tore myself away from the work. I did not know how to refuse any service that General Armstrong asked of me.

On going to Hampton, I took up my residence in a building with about seventy-five Indian youths. I was the only person in the building who was not a member of their race. At first I had a good deal of doubt about my ability to succeed. I knew that the average Indian felt himself above the white man, and, of course, he felt himself far above the Negro, largely on account of the fact of the Negro having submitted to slavery—a thing which the Indian would never do. The Indians, in the Indian Territory, owned a large number of slaves during the days of slavery. Aside from this, there was a general feeling that the attempt to educate and civilize the red men at Hampton would be a failure. All this made me proceed very cautiously, for I felt keenly the great responsibility. But I was determined to succeed. It was not long before I had the complete confidence of the Indians, and not only this, but I think I am safe in saying that I had their love and respect. I found that they were about like any other human beings; that they responded to kind treatment and resented ill-treatment. They were continually planning to do something that would add to my happiness and comfort. The things that they disliked most, I think, were to have their long hair cut, to give up wearing their blankets, and to cease smoking; but no white American ever thinks that any other race is wholly civilized until he wears the white man’s clothes, eats the white man’s food, speaks the white man’s language, and professes the white man’s religion.

When I went to Hampton, I moved into a building with about seventy-five Native American youths. I was the only person there who was not Native American. At first, I had serious doubts about whether I could succeed. I knew that the average Native American felt superior to white people and, of course, far superior to Black people. This was largely because Black people had submitted to slavery, something Native Americans would never do. During the days of slavery, Native Americans in the Indian Territory owned many slaves. Besides this, people generally felt that the attempt to educate and civilize Native Americans at Hampton would fail. All this made me proceed very cautiously, because I felt the weight of my responsibility. But I was determined to succeed. Before long, I had gained the complete confidence of the Native Americans. I think I can safely say that I had their love and respect as well. I found that they were much like any other human beings. They responded to kind treatment and resented ill-treatment. They were always planning things to make me happier and more comfortable. I think what they disliked most was having their long hair cut, giving up their blankets, and giving up smoking. But no white American ever thinks another race is wholly civilized until its people wear white people’s clothes, eat their food, speak their language, and profess their religion.

When the difficulty of learning the English language was subtracted, I found that in the matter of learning trades and in mastering academic studies there was little difference between the coloured and Indian students. It was a constant delight to me to note the interest which the coloured students took in trying to help the Indians in every way possible. There were a few of the coloured students who felt that the Indians ought not to be admitted to Hampton, but these were in the minority. Whenever they were asked to do so, the Negro students gladly took the Indians as room-mates, in order that they might teach them to speak English and to acquire civilized habits.

Once I accounted for the difficulty of learning English, I found little difference between Black and Indian students. They learned trades and mastered academic subjects at much the same rate. I was always delighted to see how eager the Black students were to help the Indians in every way possible. A few Black students felt that Indians should not be admitted to Hampton, but they were in the minority. Whenever asked, the Black students gladly shared rooms with Indians. They did so to teach the Indians to speak English and adopt what were considered civilized habits.

I have often wondered if there was a white institution in this country whose students would have welcomed the incoming of more than a hundred companions of another race in the cordial way that these black students at Hampton welcomed the red ones. How often I have wanted to say to white students that they lift themselves up in proportion as they help to lift others, and the more unfortunate the race, and the lower in the scale of civilization, the more does one raise one’s self by giving the assistance.

I have often wondered whether any white institution in this country would have welcomed more than a hundred students of another race. Would its students have welcomed them as warmly as the Black students at Hampton welcomed the Native American students? I have often wanted to tell white students that they raise themselves up by helping others. The more unfortunate a race is, and the lower it stands on the scale of civilization, the more a person raises themselves by helping that race.

This reminds me of a conversation which I once had with the Hon. Frederick Douglass. At one time Mr. Douglass was travelling in the state of Pennsylvania, and was forced, on account of his colour, to ride in the baggage-car, in spite of the fact that he had paid the same price for his passage that the other passengers had paid. When some of the white passengers went into the baggage-car to console Mr. Douglass, and one of them said to him: “I am sorry, Mr. Douglass, that you have been degraded in this manner,” Mr. Douglass straightened himself up on the box upon which he was sitting, and replied: “They cannot degrade Frederick Douglass. The soul that is within me no man can degrade. I am not the one that is being degraded on account of this treatment, but those who are inflicting it upon me.”

This reminds me of a conversation I once had with the Hon. Frederick Douglass. Mr. Douglass was once traveling in Pennsylvania when he was forced to ride in the baggage car because of his color. He had paid the same fare as the other passengers. Some white passengers went into the baggage car to comfort him. One said, “I am sorry, Mr. Douglass, that you have been humiliated in this way.” Mr. Douglass sat up straight on the box where he was sitting and replied: “They cannot humiliate Frederick Douglass. No one can humiliate the soul within me. I am not the one being degraded by this treatment. The people treating me this way are degrading themselves.”

In one part of the country, where the law demands the separation of the races on the railroad trains, I saw at one time a rather amusing instance which showed how difficult it sometimes is to know where the black begins and the white ends.

In one part of the country, the law requires racial separation on trains. There, I once saw a rather amusing example of how difficult it can be to know where black ends and white begins.

There was a man who was well known in his community as a Negro, but who was so white that even an expert would have hard work to classify him as a black man. This man was riding in the part of the train set aside for the coloured passengers. When the train conductor reached him, he showed at once that he was perplexed. If the man was a Negro, the conductor did not want to send him to the white people’s coach; at the same time, if he was a white man, the conductor did not want to insult him by asking him if he was a Negro. The official looked him over carefully, examining his hair, eyes, nose, and hands, but still seemed puzzled. Finally, to solve the difficulty, he stooped over and peeped at the man’s feet. When I saw the conductor examining the feet of the man in question, I said to myself, “That will settle it;” and so it did, for the trainman promptly decided that the passenger was a Negro, and let him remain where he was. I congratulated myself that my race was fortunate in not losing one of its members.

There was a man who was well known in his community as a Black man. But he was so light-skinned that even an expert would have struggled to classify him as Black. He was riding in the section of the train reserved for Black passengers. When the conductor reached him, he immediately looked puzzled. If the man was Black, the conductor did not want to send him to the white passengers’ coach. But if he was white, the conductor did not want to insult him by asking if he was Black. The conductor looked him over carefully, examining his hair, eyes, nose, and hands. He still seemed puzzled. Finally, to settle the question, he bent down and peeked at the man’s feet. When I saw the conductor examining the man’s feet, I said to myself, “That will settle it.” And it did. The conductor promptly decided that the passenger was Black and let him stay where he was. I congratulated myself that my race was fortunate not to lose one of its members.

My experience has been that the time to test a true gentleman is to observe him when he is in contact with individuals of a race that is less fortunate than his own. This is illustrated in no better way than by observing the conduct of the old-school type of Southern gentleman when he is in contact with his former slaves or their descendants.

In my experience, the true test of a gentleman is how he treats people of a less fortunate race than his own. Nothing illustrates this better than the way an old-school Southern gentleman treats his former slaves or their descendants.

An example of what I mean is shown in a story told of George Washington, who, meeting a coloured man in the road once, who politely lifted his hat, lifted his own in return. Some of his white friends who saw the incident criticised Washington for his action. In reply to their criticism George Washington said: “Do you suppose that I am going to permit a poor, ignorant, coloured man to be more polite than I am?”

A story about George Washington shows what I mean. Once, he met a Black man on the road who politely lifted his hat. Washington lifted his own hat in return. Some of his white friends saw this and criticized him. George Washington replied: “Do you think I am going to let a poor, ignorant Black man be more polite than I am?”

While I was in charge of the Indian boys at Hampton, I had one or two experiences which illustrate the curious workings of caste in America. One of the Indian boys was taken ill, and it became my duty to take him to Washington, deliver him over to the Secretary of the Interior, and get a receipt for him, in order that he might be returned to his Western reservation. At that time I was rather ignorant of the ways of the world. During my journey to Washington, on a steamboat, when the bell rang for dinner, I was careful to wait and not enter the dining room until after the greater part of the passengers had finished their meal. Then, with my charge, I went to the dining saloon. The man in charge politely informed me that the Indian could be served, but that I could not. I never could understand how he knew just where to draw the colour line, since the Indian and I were of about the same complexion. The steward, however, seemed to be an expert in this manner. I had been directed by the authorities at Hampton to stop at a certain hotel in Washington with my charge, but when I went to this hotel the clerk stated that he would be glad to receive the Indian into the house, but said that he could not accommodate me.

While I was in charge of the Indian boys at Hampton, I had one or two experiences that showed the curious ways caste worked in America. One of the boys became ill, and I had to take him to Washington. There, I was to turn him over to the Secretary of the Interior and get a receipt for him. He could then be returned to his Western reservation. At the time, I knew relatively little about the ways of the world. During our steamboat journey to Washington, the dinner bell rang. I made sure to wait until most of the passengers had finished eating before entering the dining room. Then I went in with the boy in my care. The man in charge politely told me that the Indian could be served, but I could not. I could never understand how he knew exactly where to draw the color line. The Indian and I had about the same complexion. The steward, however, seemed to be an expert in this matter. The authorities at Hampton had told me to stay with the boy at a particular hotel in Washington. But when I went there, the clerk said he would be glad to receive the Indian. He said he could not accommodate me.

An illustration of something of this same feeling came under my observation afterward. I happened to find myself in a town in which so much excitement and indignation were being expressed that it seemed likely for a time that there would be a lynching. The occasion of the trouble was that a dark-skinned man had stopped at the local hotel. Investigation, however, developed the fact that this individual was a citizen of Morocco, and that while travelling in this country he spoke the English language. As soon as it was learned that he was not an American Negro, all the signs of indignation disappeared. The man who was the innocent cause of the excitement, though, found it prudent after that not to speak English.

Later, I saw another example of much the same feeling. I happened to be in a town where people were so excited and angry that, for a time, a lynching seemed likely. The trouble began because a dark-skinned man had stopped at the local hotel. An investigation, however, revealed that the man was a citizen of Morocco. He spoke English while traveling in this country. As soon as people learned he was not an American Black man, all signs of anger disappeared. Even so, the man who had innocently caused the excitement thought it wise not to speak English after that.

At the end of my first year with the Indians there came another opening for me at Hampton, which, as I look back over my life now, seems to have come providentially, to help to prepare me for my work at Tuskegee later. General Armstrong had found out that there was quite a number of young coloured men and women who were intensely in earnest in wishing to get an education, but who were prevented from entering Hampton Institute because they were too poor to be able to pay any portion of the cost of their board, or even to supply themselves with books. He conceived the idea of starting a night-school in connection with the Institute, into which a limited number of the most promising of these young men and women would be received, on condition that they were to work for ten hours during the day, and attend school for two hours at night. They were to be paid something above the cost of their board for their work. The greater part of their earnings was to be reserved in the school’s treasury as a fund to be drawn on to pay their board when they had become students in the day-school, after they had spent one or two years in the night-school. In this way they would obtain a start in their books and a knowledge of some trade or industry, in addition to the other far-reaching benefits of the institution.

At the end of my first year working with the Indians, another opportunity came to me at Hampton. Looking back, it seems to have come through providence to help prepare me for my later work at Tuskegee. General Armstrong had learned of a number of young Black men and women who were deeply eager to get an education. But they were too poor to pay any part of their room and board or even buy books. As a result, they could not enter Hampton Institute. He came up with the idea of starting a night school connected with the Institute. A limited number of the most promising young men and women would be admitted. They would have to work ten hours during the day and attend school for two hours at night. They would be paid enough for their work to cover their room and board, with some money left over. Most of their earnings would be kept in the school’s treasury. After one or two years in night school, they could become day students. They could then use the money they had saved to pay for their room and board. In this way, they would get a start on their studies and learn a trade or industry. They would also receive the institution’s other far-reaching benefits.

General Armstrong asked me to take charge of the night-school, and I did so. At the beginning of this school there were about twelve strong, earnest men and women who entered the class. During the day the greater part of the young men worked in the school’s sawmill, and the young women worked in the laundry. The work was not easy in either place, but in all my teaching I never taught pupils who gave me much genuine satisfaction as these did. They were good students, and mastered their work thoroughly. They were so much in earnest that only the ringing of the retiring-bell would make them stop studying, and often they would urge me to continue the lessons after the usual hour for going to bed had come.

General Armstrong asked me to take charge of the night school, and I did. When the school began, about twelve strong, serious men and women joined the class. During the day, most of the young men worked in the school’s sawmill. The young women worked in the laundry. The work was hard in both places, but no students I ever taught gave me as much genuine satisfaction. They were good students and mastered their lessons thoroughly. They were so serious about learning that only the bedtime bell would make them stop studying. They often urged me to continue the lessons after the usual bedtime.

These students showed so much earnestness, both in their hard work during the day, as well as in their application to their studies at night, that I gave them the name of “The Plucky Class”—a name which soon grew popular and spread throughout the institution. After a student had been in the night-school long enough to prove what was in him, I gave him a printed certificate which read something like this:—

These students showed great dedication, working hard during the day and studying hard at night. So I named them “The Plucky Class.” The name soon became popular throughout the institution. Once a student had attended night school long enough to show what he was capable of, I gave him a printed certificate. It read something like this:

“This is to certify that James Smith is a member of The Plucky Class of the Hampton Institute, and is in good and regular standing.”

“This certifies that James Smith is a member in good standing of The Plucky Class of the Hampton Institute.”

The students prized these certificates highly, and they added greatly to the popularity of the night-school. Within a few weeks this department had grown to such an extent that there were about twenty-five students in attendance. I have followed the course of many of these twenty-five men and women ever since then, and they are now holding important and useful positions in nearly every part of the South. The night-school at Hampton, which started with only twelve students, now numbers between three and four hundred, and is one of the permanent and most important features of the institution.

The students valued these certificates highly, and the certificates made the night school much more popular. Within a few weeks, the night school had grown to about twenty-five students. I have followed the lives of many of these twenty-five men and women ever since. They now hold important and useful positions in nearly every part of the South. The night school at Hampton started with only twelve students. It now has between three and four hundred students and is a permanent and important part of the institution.