The Hebrews’ Calling and Whether Prophecy Was Theirs Alone

Every man's true happiness and blessedness consist solely in the enjoyment of what is good, not in the pride that he alone is enjoying it, to the exclusion of others. He who thinks himself the more blessed because he is enjoying benefits which others are not, or because he is more blessed or more fortunate than his fellows, is ignorant of true happiness and blessedness, and the joy which he feels is either childish or envious and malicious. For instance, a man's true happiness consists only in wisdom, and the knowledge of the truth, not at all in the fact that he is wiser than others, or that others lack such knowledge: such considerations do not increase his wisdom or true happiness.

Everyone’s true happiness and blessedness consist only in enjoying what is good. They do not consist in taking pride in being the only person enjoying that good, while others are excluded. Someone may think they are more blessed because they enjoy benefits others do not. Or they may think so because they are more blessed or fortunate than others. Anyone who thinks this way does not understand true happiness and blessedness. Their joy is either childish or full of envy and malice. For example, a person’s true happiness consists only in wisdom and knowledge of the truth. It does not depend at all on being wiser than others or on others lacking that knowledge. Such comparisons add nothing to that person’s wisdom or true happiness.

Whoever, therefore, rejoices for such reasons, rejoices in another's misfortune, and is, so far, malicious and bad, knowing neither true happiness nor the peace of the true life.

Therefore, anyone who rejoices for such reasons takes joy in another person's misfortune. To that extent, such a person is malicious and bad, knowing neither true happiness nor the peace of true life.

When Scripture, therefore, in exhorting the Hebrews to obey the law, says that the Lord has chosen them for Himself before other nations (Deut. x:15); that He is near them, but not near others (Deut. iv:7); that to them alone He has given just laws (Deut. iv:8); and, lastly, that He has marked them out before others (Deut. iv:32); it speaks only according to the understanding of its hearers, who, as we have shown in the last chapter, and as Moses also testifies (Deut. ix:6, 7), knew not true blessedness. For in good sooth they would have been no less blessed if God had called all men equally to salvation, nor would God have been less present to them for being equally present to others; their laws, would have been no less just if they had been ordained for all, and they themselves would have been no less wise. The miracles would have shown God's power no less by being wrought for other nations also; lastly, the Hebrews would have been just as much bound to worship God if He had bestowed all these gifts equally on all men.

Scripture therefore urges the Hebrews to obey the law by saying that the Lord chose them above other nations (Deut. x:15). It says that he is near them, but not near others (Deut. iv:7). It says that he gave just laws to them alone (Deut. iv:8). Finally, it says that he singled them out above others (Deut. iv:32). In saying these things, Scripture speaks only in terms its hearers could understand. For the Hebrews did not know true blessedness, as we showed in the last chapter and Moses also testifies (Deut. ix:6, 7). In truth, the Hebrews would have been no less blessed if God had called all people equally to salvation. Nor would God have been any less present to the Hebrews if he had been equally present to others. Their laws would have been no less just if those laws had been established for everyone. And the Hebrews themselves would have been no less wise. The miracles would have shown God's power no less if he had performed them for other nations too. Finally, the Hebrews would have been just as bound to worship God if he had given everyone all these gifts equally.

When God tells Solomon (1 Kings iii:12) that no one shall be as wise as he in time to come, it seems to be only a manner of expressing surpassing wisdom; it is little to be believed that God would have promised Solomon, for his greater happiness, that He would never endow anyone with so much wisdom in time to come; this would in no wise have increased Solomon's intellect, and the wise king would have given equal thanks to the Lord if everyone had been gifted with the same faculties.

God tells Solomon (1 Kings iii:12) that no one in the future will be as wise as Solomon. This seems to be only a way of expressing Solomon's exceptional wisdom. It is hard to believe that God promised never to give anyone else as much wisdom just to make Solomon happier. Such a promise would not have increased Solomon's understanding at all. And the wise king would have thanked the Lord just as much if everyone had received the same abilities.

Still, though we assert that Moses, in the passages of the Pentateuch just cited, spoke only according to the understanding of the Hebrews, we have no wish to deny that God ordained the Mosaic law for them alone, nor that He spoke to them alone, nor that they witnessed marvels beyond those which happened to any other nation; but we wish to emphasize that Moses desired to admonish the Hebrews in such a manner, and with such reasonings as would appeal most forcibly to their childish understanding, and constrain them to worship the Deity. Further, we wished to show that the Hebrews did not surpass other nations in knowledge, or in piety, but evidently in some attribute different from these; or (to speak like the Scriptures, according to their understanding), that the Hebrews were not chosen by God before others for the sake of the true life and sublime ideas, though they were often thereto admonished, but with some other object. What that object was, I will duly show.

Still, we maintain that Moses spoke only at the Hebrews’ level of understanding in the Pentateuch passages just cited. But we do not deny that God established the Mosaic law for the Hebrews alone, or spoke to them alone. Nor do we deny that they witnessed wonders greater than those experienced by any other nation. Rather, we emphasize that Moses wanted to instruct the Hebrews using arguments that would appeal most strongly to their childish understanding. In this way, he sought to compel them to worship God. Further, we wanted to show that the Hebrews did not surpass other nations in knowledge or devotion to God. They clearly surpassed other nations in some other quality. Or we may speak as the Scriptures do, at the Hebrews’ level of understanding. God did not choose the Hebrews over other nations for the sake of the true life and lofty ideas. Although they were often urged to pursue these things, God chose them for some other purpose. I will explain that purpose in due course.

But before I begin, I wish in a few words to explain what I mean by the guidance of God, by the help of God, external and inward, and, lastly, what I understand by fortune.

But before I begin, I want to explain briefly what I mean by God’s guidance. I will also explain what I mean by God’s help, both external and inward, and finally, by fortune.

By the help of God, I mean the fixed and unchangeable order of nature or the chain of natural events: for I have said before and shown elsewhere that the universal laws of nature, according to which all things exist and are determined, are only another name for the eternal decrees of God, which always involve eternal truth and necessity.

By the help of God, I mean nature’s fixed and unchanging order, or the chain of natural events. For, as I have said before and shown elsewhere, all things exist and are determined by nature’s universal laws. These laws are simply another name for God’s eternal decrees, which always involve eternal truth and necessity.

So that to say that everything happens according to natural laws, and to say that everything is ordained by the decree and ordinance of God, is the same thing. Now since the power in nature is identical with the power of God, by which alone all things happen and are determined, it follows that whatsoever man, as a part of nature, provides himself with to aid and preserve his existence, or whatsoever nature affords him without his help, is given to him solely by the Divine power, acting either through human nature or through external circumstance. So whatever human nature can furnish itself with by its own efforts to preserve its existence, may be fitly called the inward aid of God, whereas whatever else accrues to man's profit from outward causes may be called the external aid of God.

So saying that everything happens according to natural laws means the same as saying that God decrees and orders everything. Now the power of nature is identical with the power of God. Through God's power alone, all things happen and are determined. Human beings are part of nature. So whatever people obtain for themselves to support and preserve their existence comes solely from divine power. The same is true of whatever nature provides for them without their help. In either case, divine power acts through human nature or through external circumstances. So whatever human nature can provide through its own efforts to preserve its existence may rightly be called God's inward aid. By contrast, any other benefit people receive from outside causes may be called God's external aid.

We can now easily understand what is meant by the election of God. For since no one can do anything save by the predetermined order of nature, that is by God's eternal ordinance and decree, it follows that no one can choose a plan of life for himself, or accomplish any work save by God's vocation choosing him for the work or the plan of life in question, rather than any other. Lastly, by fortune, I mean the ordinance of God in so far as it directs human life through external and unexpected means. With these preliminaries I return to my purpose of discovering the reason why the Hebrews were said to be elected by God before other nations, and with the demonstration I thus proceed.

We can now easily understand what it means to be chosen by God. No one can do anything except according to the predetermined order of nature, meaning God's eternal ordinance and decree. So no one can choose a way of life or accomplish any work unless God calls them to it. God's call chooses them for that particular work or way of life rather than any other. Finally, by fortune I mean God's ordinance insofar as it directs human life through external and unexpected means. With these points established, I return to my purpose. I want to discover why the Hebrews were said to be chosen by God over other nations. I will now proceed with the proof.

All objects of legitimate desire fall, generally speaking, under one of these three categories:

Generally speaking, all things we can rightly desire fall into one of these three categories:

The means which most directly conduce towards the first two of these ends, and which may be considered their proximate and efficient causes are contained in human nature itself, so that their acquisition hinges only on our own power, and on the laws of human nature. It may be concluded that these gifts are not peculiar to any nation, but have always been shared by the whole human race, unless, indeed, we would indulge the dream that nature formerly created men of different kinds. But the means which conduce to security and health are chiefly in external circumstance, and are called the gifts of fortune because they depend chiefly on objective causes of which we are ignorant; for a fool may be almost as liable to happiness or unhappiness as a wise man. Nevertheless, human management and watchfulness can greatly assist towards living in security and warding off the injuries of our fellow-men, and even of beasts. Reason and experience show no more certain means of attaining this object than the formation of a society with fixed laws, the occupation of a strip of territory and the concentration of all forces, as it were, into one body, that is the social body. Now for forming and preserving a society, no ordinary ability and care is required: that society will be most secure, most stable, and least liable to reverses, which is founded and directed by far-seeing and careful men; while, on the other hand, a society constituted by men without trained skill, depends in a great measure on fortune, and is less constant. If, in spite of all, such a society lasts a long time, it is owing to some other directing influence than its own; if it overcomes great perils and its affairs prosper, it will perforce marvel at and adore the guiding Spirit of God (in so far, that is, as God works through hidden means, and not through the nature and mind of man), for everything happens to it unexpectedly and contrary to anticipation, it may even be said and thought to be by miracle. Nations, then, are distinguished from one another in respect to the social organization and the laws under which they live and are governed; the Hebrew nation was not chosen by God in respect to its wisdom nor its tranquillity of mind, but in respect to its social organization and the good fortune with which it obtained supremacy and kept it so many years. This is abundantly clear from Scripture. Even a cursory perusal will show us that the only respects in which the Hebrews surpassed other nations, are in their successful conduct of matters relating to government, and in their surmounting great perils solely by God's external aid; in other ways they were on a par with their fellows, and God was equally gracious to all. For in respect to intellect (as we have shown in the last chapter) they held very ordinary ideas about God and nature, so that they cannot have been God's chosen in this respect; nor were they so chosen in respect of virtue and the true life, for here again they, with the exception of a very few elect, were on an equality with other nations: therefore their choice and vocation consisted only in the temporal happiness and advantages of independent rule. In fact, we do not see that God promised anything beyond this to the patriarchs⁴ or their successors; in the law no other reward is offered for obedience than the continual happiness of an independent commonwealth and other goods of this life; while, on the other hand, against contumacy and the breaking of the covenant is threatened the downfall of the commonwealth and great hardships. Nor is this to be wondered at; for the ends of every social organization and commonwealth are (as appears from what we have said, and as we will explain more at length hereafter) security and comfort; a commonwealth can only exist by the laws being binding on all. If all the members of a state wish to disregard the law, by that very fact they dissolve the state and destroy the commonwealth. Thus, the only reward which could be promised to the Hebrews for continued obedience to the law was security⁵ and its attendant advantages, while no surer punishment could be threatened for disobedience, than the ruin of the state and the evils which generally follow therefrom, in addition to such further consequences as might accrue to the Jews in particular from the ruin of their especial state. But there is no need here to go into this point at more length. I will only add that the laws of the Old Testament were revealed and ordained to the Jews only, for as God chose them in respect to the special constitution of their society and government, they must, of course, have had special laws. Whether God ordained special laws for other nations also, and revealed Himself to their lawgivers prophetically, that is, under the attributes by which the latter were accustomed to imagine Him, I cannot sufficiently determine. It is evident from Scripture itself that other nations acquired supremacy and particular laws by the external aid of God; witness only the two following passages:

The means that lead most directly to the first two goals are found in human nature itself. These means can be considered the immediate and effective causes of those goals. So acquiring these gifts depends only on our own power and the laws of human nature. We may conclude that these gifts belong to no single nation. They have always been shared by the whole human race. The alternative would be to indulge the fantasy that nature once created different kinds of human beings. But the means that lead to security and health lie chiefly in external circumstances. They are called gifts of fortune because they depend chiefly on external causes unknown to us. For a fool may be almost as likely to experience good or bad fortune as a wise person. Nevertheless, human planning and vigilance can greatly help us live securely and avoid harm from other people, and even animals. Reason and experience show no surer means of achieving this goal than forming a society with fixed laws. Such a society occupies a territory and unites all its forces into what is, in effect, one body: the social body. Now, forming and preserving a society requires exceptional ability and care. A society founded and governed by farsighted, careful people will be the most secure, stable, and resistant to setbacks. By contrast, a society established by people without trained skill depends largely on fortune and is less stable. If such a society nevertheless lasts a long time, some directing influence other than its own is responsible. If the society overcomes great dangers and prospers, it will inevitably marvel at and worship the guiding Spirit of God. Here, God is understood as working through hidden means, rather than through human nature and the human mind. For everything happens to such a society unexpectedly and contrary to its expectations. These events may even be described and regarded as miracles. Nations, then, differ from one another in their social organization and the laws under which they live and are governed. God did not choose the Hebrew nation for its wisdom or peace of mind. Rather, he chose it for its social organization and the good fortune that brought it power and preserved that power for so many years. Scripture makes this abundantly clear. Even a quick reading shows that the Hebrews surpassed other nations only in successfully managing affairs of government. They also surpassed them in overcoming great dangers solely through God's external aid. In other respects, they were equal to other nations, and God was equally gracious to all. As we showed in the last chapter, their understanding of God and nature was quite ordinary. So they cannot have been God's chosen people because of their intellect. Nor were they chosen for their virtue or their way of living in accordance with truth. Here too, apart from a very few chosen individuals, they were equal to other nations. Their selection and calling therefore concerned only worldly prosperity and the advantages of independent government. In fact, we find no promise from God beyond these benefits to the patriarchs⁴ or their successors. The law offers no other reward for obedience than the lasting prosperity of an independent state and other worldly benefits. By contrast, rebellion and breaking the covenant are threatened with the state's downfall and great hardships. This is not surprising. Every society and state aims at security and well-being. This follows from what we have said, and we will explain it more fully later. A state can exist only if its laws bind everyone. If all members of a state choose to disregard the law, that very choice dissolves and destroys the state. Thus, the only reward that could be promised to the Hebrews for continued obedience was security⁵ and its accompanying benefits. Likewise, no surer punishment could be threatened for disobedience than the state's ruin and the evils that generally follow. Further consequences might also fall specifically on the Jews because of the ruin of their particular state. But there is no need to discuss this point further here. I will add only that the laws of the Old Testament were revealed and ordained for the Jews alone. For God chose them because of the particular structure of their society and government. They must therefore have had particular laws. I cannot determine with sufficient certainty whether God also ordained particular laws for other nations and revealed himself prophetically to their lawgivers. Such revelations would have presented God with the attributes through which those lawgivers were accustomed to imagine him. Scripture itself clearly shows that other nations gained power and particular laws through God's external aid. Consider just the following two passages:

In Genesis xiv:18, 19, 20, it is related that Melchisedek was king of Jerusalem and priest of the Most High God, that in exercise of his priestly functions he blessed Abraham, and that Abraham the beloved of the Lord gave to this priest of God a tithe of all his spoils. This sufficiently shows that before He founded the Israelitish nation God constituted kings and priests in Jerusalem, and ordained for them rites and laws. Whether He did so prophetically is, as I have said, not sufficiently clear; but I am sure of this, that Abraham, whilst he sojourned in the city, lived scrupulously according to these laws, for Abraham had received no special rites from God; and yet it is stated (Gen. xxvi:5), that he observed the worship, the precepts, the statutes, and the laws of God, which must be interpreted to mean the worship, the statutes, the precepts, and the laws of king Melchisedek. Malachi chides the Jews as follows (i:10-11.): "Who is there among you that will shut the doors? [of the Temple]; neither do ye kindle fire on mine altar for nought. I have no pleasure in you, saith the Lord of Hosts. For from the rising of the sun, even until the going down of the same My Name shall be great among the Gentiles; and in every place incense shall be offered in My Name, and a pure offering; for My Name is great among the heathen, saith the Lord of Hosts." These words, which, unless we do violence to them, could only refer to the current period, abundantly testify that the Jews of that time were not more beloved by God than other nations, that God then favoured other nations with more miracles than He vouchsafed to the Jews, who had then partly recovered their empire without miraculous aid; and, lastly, that the Gentiles possessed rites and ceremonies acceptable to God. But I pass over these points lightly: it is enough for my purpose to have shown that the election of the Jews had regard to nothing but temporal physical happiness and freedom, in other words, autonomous government, and to the manner and means by which they obtained it; consequently to the laws in so far as they were necessary to the preservation of that special government; and, lastly, to the manner in which they were revealed. In regard to other matters, wherein man's true happiness consists, they were on a par with the rest of the nations.

Genesis 14:18, 19, 20 tells us that Melchisedek was king of Jerusalem and priest of the Most High God. As part of his priestly duties, he blessed Abraham. And Abraham, beloved by the Lord, gave this priest of God a tenth of all his spoils. This clearly shows that God established kings and priests in Jerusalem before founding the Israelite nation. God also prescribed rites and laws for those kings and priests. As I have said, whether God did so through prophecy is not sufficiently clear. But I am sure that Abraham carefully followed these laws while staying in the city. For Abraham had received no special rites from God. Yet Genesis 26:5 states that Abraham observed God's worship, commands, statutes, and laws. This must mean the worship, statutes, commands, and laws of king Melchisedek. Malachi rebukes the Jews as follows (1:10, 11): "Who among you will shut the doors [of the Temple]? Nor do you light fires on my altar for nothing. I take no pleasure in you, says the Lord of Hosts. For from sunrise to sunset my name shall be great among the Gentiles. In every place incense shall be offered in my name, along with a pure offering. For my name is great among the nations, says the Lord of Hosts." Unless we force their meaning, these words can only refer to the time when they were spoken. These words amply show that God loved the Jews of that time no more than he loved other nations. They also show that God then favored other nations with more miracles than he granted the Jews. The Jews had by then partly regained their empire without miraculous help. Finally, Malachi's words show that the Gentiles had rites and ceremonies acceptable to God. But I will touch only briefly on these points. For my purpose, it is enough to have shown that God chose the Jews only for worldly well-being and freedom. In other words, their being chosen concerned self-government, and the ways and means by which they gained it. Consequently, their being chosen concerned their laws only insofar as those laws were needed to preserve that particular government. Finally, their being chosen concerned the way those laws were revealed. In all other matters, where true human happiness lies, the Jews stood on equal terms with other nations.

When, therefore, it is said in Scripture (Deut. iv:7) that the Lord is not so nigh to any other nation as He is to the Jews, reference is only made to their government, and to the period when so many miracles happened to them, for in respect of intellect and virtue - that is, in respect of blessedness - God was, as we have said already, and are now demonstrating, equally gracious to all. Scripture itself bears testimony to this fact, for the Psalmist says (cxlv:18), "The Lord is near unto all them that call upon Him, to all that call upon Him in truth." So in the same Psalm, verse 9, "The Lord is good to all, and His tender mercies are over all His works." In Ps. xxxiii:16, it is clearly stated that God has granted to all men the same intellect, in these words, "He fashioneth their hearts alike." The heart was considered by the Hebrews, as I suppose everyone knows, to be the seat of the soul and the intellect.

Scripture says that the Lord is closer to the Jews than to any other nation (Deut. iv:7). This statement refers only to their government and the period when so many miracles happened to them. For in intellect and virtue, that is, in blessedness, God was equally gracious to all. We have already said this and are now demonstrating it. Scripture itself confirms this equality, for the Psalmist says (cxlv:18), "The Lord is near to all who call upon him, to all who call upon him in truth." Likewise, verse 9 of the same Psalm says, "The Lord is good to all, and his tender mercies extend over all his works." Ps. xxxiii:16 clearly states that God has given all people the same intellect: "He forms their hearts alike." The Hebrews considered the heart to be the seat of the soul and the intellect. I suppose everyone knows this.

Lastly, from Job xxxviii:28, it is plain that God had ordained for the whole human race the law to reverence God, to keep from evil doing, or to do well, and that Job, although a Gentile, was of all men most acceptable to God, because he exceeded all in piety and religion. Lastly, from Jonah iv:2, it is very evident that, not only to the Jews but to all men, God was gracious, merciful, long-suffering, and of great goodness, and repented Him of the evil, for Jonah says: "Therefore I determined to flee before unto Tarshish, for I know that Thou art a gracious God, and merciful, slow to anger, and of great kindness," &c., and that, therefore, God would pardon the Ninevites. We conclude, therefore (inasmuch as God is to all men equally gracious, and the Hebrews were only chosen by him in respect to their social organization and government), that the individual Jew, taken apart from his social organization and government, possessed no gift of God above other men, and that there was no difference between Jew and Gentile. As it is a fact that God is equally gracious, merciful, and the rest, to all men; and as the function of the prophet was to teach men not so much the laws of their country, as true virtue, and to exhort them thereto, it is not to be doubted that all nations possessed prophets, and that the prophetic gift was not peculiar to the Jews. Indeed, history, both profane and sacred, bears witness to the fact. Although, from the sacred histories of the Old Testament, it is not evident that the other nations had as many prophets as the Hebrews, or that any Gentile prophet was expressly sent by God to the nations, this does not affect the question, for the Hebrews were careful to record their own affairs, not those of other nations. It suffices, then, that we find in the Old Testament Gentiles, and uncircumcised, as Noah, Enoch, Abimelech, Balaam, &c., exercising prophetic gifts; further, that Hebrew prophets were sent by God, not only to their own nation but to many others also. Ezekiel prophesied to all the nations then known; Obadiah to none, that we are aware of, save the Idumeans; and Jonah was chiefly the prophet to the Ninevites. Isaiah bewails and predicts the calamities, and hails the restoration not only of the Jews but also of other nations, for he says (chap. xvi:9), "Therefore I will bewail Jazer with weeping;" and in chap. xix. he foretells first the calamities and then the restoration of the Egyptians (see verses 19, 20, 21, 25), saying that God shall send them a Saviour to free them, that the Lord shall be known in Egypt, and, further, that the Egyptians shall worship God with sacrifice and oblation; and, at last, he calls that nation the blessed Egyptian people of God; all of which particulars are specially noteworthy.

Finally, Job 38:28 makes clear that God gave the whole human race a law: to revere God and avoid wrongdoing, or to do good. Job, although a Gentile, pleased God more than anyone else because he surpassed everyone in devotion and religious practice. Finally, Jonah 4:2 makes very clear that God was gracious and merciful to all people, not only the Jews. God was patient and full of goodness, and he relented from bringing harm. For Jonah says: "That is why I decided earlier to flee to Tarshish. I knew that you are a gracious and merciful God, slow to anger and full of kindness," and so on. Therefore, God would pardon the Ninevites. We therefore reach the following conclusion, since God is equally gracious to all people. The Hebrews were chosen by him only in matters of their social organization and government. An individual Jew, considered apart from that social organization and government, had no gift from God beyond those of other people. In this respect, there was no difference between Jew and Gentile. God is equally gracious, merciful, and so forth to all people. A prophet’s role was less to teach people their country’s laws than to teach true virtue and urge its practice. We therefore cannot doubt that all nations had prophets, and that the prophetic gift was not unique to the Jews. Indeed, both secular and sacred history confirm this fact. The sacred histories of the Old Testament do not show that other nations had as many prophets as the Hebrews. Nor do these histories show that God expressly sent any Gentile prophet to the nations. But these gaps do not affect the question, because the Hebrews carefully recorded their own affairs, not those of other nations. It is enough, then, that the Old Testament shows uncircumcised Gentiles exercising prophetic gifts. These include Noah, Enoch, Abimelech, Balaam, and others. Moreover, God sent Hebrew prophets not only to their own nation but also to many others. Ezekiel prophesied to all the nations known at the time. Obadiah prophesied only to the Idumeans, as far as we know. Jonah was chiefly a prophet to the Ninevites. Isaiah mourns and predicts disasters, and welcomes restoration, not only for the Jews but also for other nations. For he says (16:9), "Therefore I will weep for Jazer." In chapter 19, he predicts first the Egyptians’ disasters and then their restoration (see verses 19, 20, 21, 25). He says that God will send them a Saviour to free them, and that the Lord will be known in Egypt. He also says that the Egyptians will worship God with sacrifices and offerings. Finally, he calls the Egyptians God’s blessed people. All these details deserve special attention.

Jeremiah is called, not the prophet of the Hebrew nation, but simply the prophet of the nations (see Jer. i.5). He also mournfully foretells the calamities of the nations, and predicts their restoration, for he says (xlviii. 31) of the Moabites, "Therefore will I howl for Moab, and I will cry out for all Moab" (verse 36), "and therefore mine heart shall sound for Moab like pipes;" in the end he prophesies their restoration, as also the restoration of the Egyptians, Ammonites, and Elamites. Wherefore it is beyond doubt that other nations also, like the Jews, had their prophets, who prophesied to them.

Jeremiah is called not the prophet of the Hebrew nation, but simply the prophet of the nations (see Jer. 1:5). He also mournfully predicts the disasters that will strike the nations and foretells their restoration. For he says of the Moabites (48:31), "Therefore I will weep for Moab, and cry out for all Moab." He adds (verse 36), "and therefore my heart will sound like pipes for Moab." In the end, he predicts the restoration of the Moabites, as well as the Egyptians, Ammonites, and Elamites. So there is no doubt that other nations, like the Jews, also had prophets who prophesied to them.

Although Scripture only, makes mention of one man, Balaam, to whom the future of the Jews and the other nations was revealed, we must not suppose that Balaam prophesied only once, for from the narrative itself it is abundantly clear that he had long previously been famous for prophesy and other Divine gifts. For when Balak bade him to come to him, he said (Num. xxii:6), "For I know that he whom thou blessest is blessed, and he whom thou cursest is cursed." Thus we see that he possessed the gift which God had bestowed on Abraham. Further, as accustomed to prophesy, Balaam bade the messengers wait for him till the will of the Lord was revealed to him. When he prophesied, that is, when he interpreted the true mind of God, he was wont to say this of himself: "He hath said, which heard the words of God and knew the knowledge of the Most High, which saw the vision of the Almighty falling into a trance, but having his eyes open." Further, after he had blessed the Hebrews by the command of God, he began (as was his custom) to prophesy to other nations, and to predict their future; all of which abundantly shows that he had always been a prophet, or had often prophesied, and (as we may also remark here) possessed that which afforded the chief certainty to prophets of the truth of their prophecy, namely, a mind turned wholly to what is right and good, for he did not bless those whom he wished to bless, nor curse those whom he wished to curse, as Balak supposed, but only those whom God wished to be blessed or cursed. Thus he answered Balak: "If Balak should give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the commandment of the Lord to do either good or bad of my own mind; but what the Lord saith, that will I speak." As for God being angry with him in the way, the same happened to Moses when he set out to Egypt by the command of the Lord; and as to his receiving money for prophesying, Samuel did the same (1 Sam. ix:7, 8); if in anyway he sinned, "there is not a just man upon earth that doeth good and sinneth not," Eccles. vii:20. (Vide 2 Epist. Peter ii:15, 16, and Jude 5:11.)

Scripture mentions only one man, Balaam, to whom the future of the Jews and the other nations was revealed. But we must not suppose that Balaam prophesied only once. The narrative itself makes it abundantly clear that he had long been famous for prophecy and other divine gifts. For when Balak asked Balaam to come to him, he said (Num. 22:6): "For I know that whoever you bless is blessed, and whoever you curse is cursed." So we see that Balaam possessed the gift God had given Abraham. Also, Balaam was accustomed to prophesying. He told the messengers to wait until the Lord's will was revealed to him. When he prophesied, that is, when he interpreted God's true thoughts, he used to describe himself this way: "He speaks who heard God's words and knew the knowledge of the Most High. He saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but with his eyes open." Further, after blessing the Hebrews at God's command, Balaam began, as usual, to prophesy to other nations and predict their future. All these details abundantly show that he had always been a prophet, or had often prophesied. We may also note here that he possessed what gave prophets their chief certainty that their prophecies were true. This was a mind devoted entirely to what is right and good. For Balaam did not bless or curse whomever he wished, as Balak supposed. He blessed or cursed only those whom God wished to be blessed or cursed. So he answered Balak: "Even if Balak gave me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the Lord's command. I cannot do either good or bad of my own choosing. But whatever the Lord says, I will speak." As for God being angry with Balaam on his journey, the same happened to Moses. Moses, too, had set out for Egypt at the Lord's command. As for Balaam receiving money for prophesying, Samuel did the same (1 Sam. 9:7, 8). If Balaam sinned in any way, "there is no righteous person on earth who does good and never sins," Eccles. 7:20. (See 2 Peter 2:15, 16, and Jude 5:11.)

His speeches must certainly have had much weight with God, and His power for cursing must assuredly have been very great from the number of times that we find stated in Scripture, in proof of God's great mercy to the Jews, that God would not hear Balaam, and that He changed the cursing to blessing (see Deut. xxiii:6, Josh. xxiv:10, Neh. xiii:2). Wherefore he was without doubt most acceptable to God, for the speeches and cursings of the wicked move God not at all. As then he was a true prophet, and nevertheless Joshua calls him a soothsayer or augur, it is certain that this title had an honourable signification, and that those whom the Gentiles called augurs and soothsayers were true prophets, while those whom Scripture often accuses and condemns were false soothsayers, who deceived the Gentiles as false prophets deceived the Jews; indeed, this is made evident from other passages in the Bible, whence we conclude that the gift of prophecy was not peculiar to the Jews, but common to all nations. The Pharisees, however, vehemently contend that this Divine gift was peculiar to their nation, and that the other nations foretold the future (what will superstition invent next?) by some unexplained diabolical faculty. The principal passage of Scripture which they cite, by way of confirming their theory with its authority, is Exodus xxxiii:16, where Moses says to God, "For wherein shall it be known here that I and Thy people have found grace in Thy sight? is it not in that Thou goest with us? so shall we be separated, I and Thy people, from all the people that are upon the face of the earth." From this they would infer that Moses asked of God that He should be present to the Jews, and should reveal Himself to them prophetically; further, that He should grant this favour to no other nation. It is surely absurd that Moses should have been jealous of God's presence among the Gentiles, or that he should have dared to ask any such thing. The fact is, as Moses knew that the disposition and spirit of his nation was rebellious, he clearly saw that they could not carry out what they had begun without very great miracles and special external aid from God; nay, that without such aid they must necessarily perish: as it was evident that God wished them to be preserved, he asked for this special external aid. Thus he says (Ex. xxxiv:9), "If now I have found grace in Thy sight, O Lord, let my Lord, I pray Thee, go among us; for it is a stiffnecked people." The reason, therefore, for his seeking special external aid from God was the stiffneckedness of the people, and it is made still more plain, that he asked for nothing beyond this special external aid by God's answer - for God answered at once (verse 10 of the same chapter) - "Behold, I make a covenant: before all Thy people I will do marvels, such as have not been done in all the earth, nor in any nation." Therefore Moses had in view nothing beyond the special election of the Jews, as I have explained it, and made no other request to God. I confess that in Paul's Epistle to the Romans, I find another text which carries more weight, namely, where Paul seems to teach a different doctrine from that here set down, for he there says (Rom. iii:1): "What advantage then hath the Jew? or what profit is there of circumcision? Much every way: chiefly, because that unto them were committed the oracles of God."

Balaam’s words must certainly have carried great weight with God, and his power to curse must have been very great. Scripture repeatedly says that God refused to hear Balaam and turned his curse into a blessing. These statements show God’s great mercy toward the Jews (see Deut. 23:6, Josh. 24:10, Neh. 13:2). Balaam was therefore undoubtedly highly favored by God, since the words and curses of the wicked do not move God at all. Balaam was a true prophet, yet Joshua calls him a soothsayer or augur. So this title certainly had an honorable meaning. Those whom the Gentiles called augurs and soothsayers were true prophets. By contrast, the soothsayers whom Scripture often accuses and condemns were false. They deceived the Gentiles just as false prophets deceived the Jews. Other passages in the Bible also make this clear. We therefore conclude that the gift of prophecy was not exclusive to the Jews, but shared by all nations. The Pharisees, however, fiercely insist that this divine gift belonged only to their nation. They claim that other nations foretold the future through some unexplained, diabolical power. What will superstition invent next? The main passage they cite as scriptural authority for their theory is Exodus 33:16, where Moses says to God, "How will anyone here know that I and your people have found favor with you? Is it not because you go with us? In this way, I and your people will be set apart from all other peoples on earth." From this passage, they would conclude that Moses asked God to be present among the Jews and reveal himself prophetically. They would also conclude that Moses asked God to grant this favor to no other nation. Surely it is absurd to suppose that Moses was jealous of God’s presence among the Gentiles. It is equally absurd to suppose that he would have dared to make such a request. In fact, Moses knew that his nation was rebellious in character and spirit. He clearly saw that they could not finish what they had begun without great miracles and special external help from God. Indeed, without such help, they would necessarily perish. Since God clearly wished to preserve them, Moses asked for this special external help. Thus he says (Ex. 34:9), "If I have now found favor with you, Lord, please let my Lord go among us, for these people are stubborn." The people’s stubbornness was therefore his reason for seeking special external help from God. God’s answer makes it even clearer that Moses asked for nothing beyond this help. God answered at once (verse 10 of the same chapter), "Look, I am making a covenant. Before all your people I will perform wonders never before performed anywhere on earth or in any nation." Moses therefore had nothing in mind beyond the Jews’ special election, as I have explained it. He made no other request to God. I admit that I find another passage in Paul’s Epistle to the Romans that carries more weight. In that passage, Paul seems to teach a doctrine different from the one presented here. He says (Rom. 3:1), "What advantage, then, does the Jew have? Or what benefit is there in circumcision? Much in every way, chiefly because the words of God were entrusted to them."

But if we look to the doctrine which Paul especially desired to teach, we shall find nothing repugnant to our present contention; on the contrary, his doctrine is the same as ours, for he says (Rom. iii:29) "that God is the God of the Jews and of the Gentiles, and" (ch. ii:25, 26) "But, if thou be a breaker of the law, thy circumcision is made uncircumcision. Therefore if the uncircumcision keep the righteousness of the law, shall not his uncircumcision be counted for circumcision?" Further, in chap. iv:verse 9, he says that all alike, Jew and Gentile, were under sin, and that without commandment and law there is no sin. Wherefore it is most evident that to all men absolutely was revealed the law under which all lived - namely, the law which has regard only to true virtue, not the law established in respect to, and in the formation of a particular state and adapted to the disposition of a particular people. Lastly, Paul concludes that since God is the God of all nations, that is, is equally gracious to all, and since all men equally live under the law and under sin, so also to all nations did God send His Christ, to free all men equally from the bondage of the law, that they should no more do right by the command of the law, but by the constant determination of their hearts. So that Paul teaches exactly the same as ourselves. When, therefore, he says "To the Jews only were entrusted the oracles of God," we must either understand that to them only were the laws entrusted in writing, while they were given to other nations merely in revelation and conception, or else (as none but Jews would object to the doctrine he desired to advance) that Paul was answering only in accordance with the understanding and current ideas of the Jews, for in respect to teaching things which he had partly seen, partly heard, he was to the Greeks a Greek, and to the Jews a Jew.

But if we examine the teaching Paul especially wanted to convey, we find nothing that conflicts with our argument. On the contrary, his teaching agrees with ours. He says (Romans 3:29) "that God is the God of the Jews and of the Gentiles," and (Romans 2:25, 26) "But if you break the law, your circumcision becomes uncircumcision. Therefore, if an uncircumcised person keeps the law’s requirements, will not his uncircumcision count as circumcision?" Further, in chapter 4, verse 9, he says that all alike, Jew and Gentile, were under sin. He also says that without commandment and law there is no sin. So it is entirely clear that the law under which everyone lived was revealed to absolutely everyone. This law concerns only true virtue. It is not the law established for a particular state, as part of its formation, and suited to a particular people’s character. Finally, Paul concludes that God is the God of all nations, meaning that he is equally gracious to all. All people also live equally under the law and under sin. For these reasons, God sent his Christ to all nations, to free everyone equally from bondage to the law. The purpose was that people should no longer do right because the law commanded them. Instead, they should do right through the firm resolve of their hearts. So Paul teaches exactly what we teach. When Paul says, "To the Jews alone were entrusted the words of God," we must understand him in one of two ways. Either the Jews alone received the laws in writing, while other nations received them only through revelation and understanding. Or Paul was answering according to the Jews’ understanding and accepted ideas. For no one but Jews would object to the teaching he wanted to put forward. In teaching things he had partly seen and partly heard, he was a Greek to the Greeks and a Jew to the Jews.

It now only remains to us to answer the arguments of those who would persuade themselves that the election of the Jews was not temporal, and merely in respect of their commonwealth, but eternal; for, they say, we see the Jews after the loss of their commonwealth, and after being scattered so many years and separated from all other nations, still surviving, which is without parallel among other peoples, and further the Scriptures seem to teach that God has chosen for Himself the Jews for ever, so that though they have lost their commonwealth, they still nevertheless remain God's elect.

We now need only answer those who argue that God's choice of the Jews was eternal, not temporary. They believe this choice concerned more than just the Jews' state. For, they say, the Jews still survive after losing their state and living scattered and separate from all other nations for so many years. They argue that no other people has survived in this way. Moreover, the Scriptures seem to teach that God has chosen the Jews for himself forever. So, according to this view, although the Jews have lost their state, they remain God's chosen people.

The passages which they think teach most clearly this eternal election, are chiefly: (1.) Jer. xxxi:36, where the prophet testifies that the seed of Israel shall for ever remain the nation of God, comparing them with the stability of the heavens and nature;

The main passages they think most clearly teach this eternal election are: (1.) Jer. xxxi:36. Here the prophet declares that Israel’s descendants will forever remain God’s nation, comparing their permanence to that of the heavens and nature.

(2.) Ezek. xx:32, where the prophet seems to intend that though the Jews wanted after the help afforded them to turn their backs on the worship of the Lord, that God would nevertheless gather them together again from all the lands in which they were dispersed, and lead them to the wilderness of the peoples - as He had led their fathers to the wilderness of the land of Egypt - and would at length, after purging out from among them the rebels and transgressors, bring them thence to his Holy mountain, where the whole house of Israel should worship Him. Other passages are also cited, especially by the Pharisees, but I think I shall satisfy everyone if I answer these two, and this I shall easily accomplish after showing from Scripture itself that God chose not the Hebrews for ever, but only on the condition under which He had formerly chosen the Canaanites, for these last, as we have shown, had priests who religiously worshipped God, and whom God at length rejected because of their luxury, pride, and corrupt worship.

(2.) Ezek. 20:32, where the prophet seems to mean the following: The Jews wanted to abandon the worship of the Lord, despite the help they had received. Yet God would gather them again from all the lands where they had been scattered. He would lead them into the wilderness of the peoples, just as he had led their fathers into Egypt’s wilderness. Finally, after removing the rebels and transgressors from among them, he would bring them to his Holy mountain. There the whole house of Israel would worship him. Other passages are also cited, especially by the Pharisees. But I think I will satisfy everyone if I answer these two. I can easily do so once I show from Scripture itself that God did not choose the Hebrews forever. Rather, he chose them only on the same condition under which he had previously chosen the Canaanites. For, as we have shown, the Canaanites had priests who devoutly worshipped God. God eventually rejected them because of their luxurious living, pride, and corrupt worship.

Moses (Lev. xviii:27) warned the Israelites that they be not polluted with whoredoms, lest the land spue them out as it had spued out the nations who had dwelt there before, and in Deut. viii:19, 20, in the plainest terms He threatens their total ruin, for He says, "I testify against you that ye shall surely perish. As the nations which the Lord destroyeth before your face, so shall ye perish." In like manner many other passages are found in the law which expressly show that God chose the Hebrews neither absolutely nor for ever. If, then, the prophets foretold for them a new covenant of the knowledge of God, love, and grace, such a promise is easily proved to be only made to the elect, for Ezekiel in the chapter which we have just quoted expressly says that God will separate from them the rebellious and transgressors, and Zephaniah (iii:12, 13), says that "God will take away the proud from the midst of them, and leave the poor." Now, inasmuch as their election has regard to true virtue, it is not to be thought that it was promised to the Jews alone to the exclusion of others, but we must evidently believe that the true Gentile prophets (and every nation, as we have shown, possessed such) promised the same to the faithful of their own people, who were thereby comforted. Wherefore this eternal covenant of the knowledge of God and love is universal, as is clear, moreover, from Zeph. iii:10, 11: no difference in this respect can be admitted between Jew and Gentile, nor did the former enjoy any special election beyond that which we have pointed out.

Moses (Lev. 18:27) warned the Israelites not to defile themselves with sexual immorality. Otherwise, the land would spit them out, as it had spat out the nations who had lived there before. In Deut. 8:19, 20, he threatens their complete destruction in the clearest terms, saying, "I testify against you that you will surely perish. Just as the nations the Lord destroys before you perish, so will you." Many other passages in the law likewise clearly show that God’s choice of the Hebrews was neither unconditional nor eternal. If, then, the prophets foretold a new covenant of knowledge of God, love, and grace, the promise has clear limits. It is easy to prove that such a promise was made only to the elect. In the chapter just quoted, Ezekiel explicitly says that God will separate the rebellious and the lawbreakers from the Hebrews. And Zephaniah (3:12, 13) says that "God will remove the proud from among them and leave the poor." Now, since their election concerns true virtue, we must not think this promise belonged to the Jews alone, excluding others. Rather, we must clearly believe that true Gentile prophets made the same promise to the faithful among their own people. As we have shown, every nation had such prophets, and their promises comforted the faithful. Therefore, this eternal covenant of knowledge of God and love is universal. Zeph. 3:10, 11 also makes this clear. In this respect, no distinction can be admitted between Jew and Gentile. Nor did the Jews enjoy any special election beyond the one we have already described.

When the prophets, in speaking of this election which regards only true virtue, mixed up much concerning sacrifices and ceremonies, and the rebuilding of the temple and city, they wished by such figurative expressions, after the manner and nature of prophecy, to expound matters spiritual, so as at the same time to show to the Jews, whose prophets they were, the true restoration of the state and of the temple to be expected about the time of Cyrus.

When the prophets spoke of this election, concerned only with true virtue, they also spoke much of sacrifices and ceremonies. They also spoke of rebuilding the temple and city. Through these figurative expressions, the prophets sought to explain spiritual matters, as was the nature and practice of prophecy. At the same time, they sought to show the Jews, whose prophets they were, the true restoration to expect. This restoration of the state and temple was to be expected around the time of Cyrus.

At the present time, therefore, there is absolutely nothing which the Jews can arrogate to themselves beyond other people.

Therefore, at present, the Jews have absolutely no grounds to claim any advantage over other people.

As to their continuance so long after dispersion and the loss of empire, there is nothing marvellous in it, for they so separated themselves from every other nation as to draw down upon themselves universal hate, not only by their outward rites, rites conflicting with those of other nations, but also by the sign of circumcision which they most scrupulously observe.

There is nothing remarkable about their survival so long after being scattered and losing their empire. For they separated themselves so completely from every other nation that they brought universal hatred upon themselves. They did so not only through outward rituals that conflicted with those of other nations. They also set themselves apart through the sign of circumcision, which they observe with the greatest care.

That they have been preserved in great measure by Gentile hatred, experience demonstrates. When the king of Spain formerly compelled the Jews to embrace the State religion or to go into exile, a large number of Jews accepted Catholicism. Now, as these renegades were admitted to all the native privileges of Spaniards, and deemed worthy of filling all honourable offices, it came to pass that they straightway became so intermingled with the Spaniards as to leave of themselves no relic or remembrance. But exactly the opposite happened to those whom the king of Portugal compelled to become Christians, for they always, though converted, lived apart, inasmuch as they were considered unworthy of any civic honours.

Experience shows that hatred from Gentiles has largely preserved the Jews as a distinct people. When the king of Spain once forced Jews to adopt the State religion or go into exile, many accepted Catholicism. These Jews who abandoned their faith received all the rights of native Spaniards. They were also considered worthy of holding all honorable offices. As a result, they immediately blended so completely into the Spanish population that no trace or memory of them remained. But exactly the opposite happened to the Jews whom the king of Portugal forced to become Christians. Although these Jews converted, they always lived apart because they were considered unworthy of any civic honors.

The sign of circumcision is, as I think, so important, that I could persuade myself that it alone would preserve the nation for ever. Nay, I would go so far as to believe that if the foundations of their religion have not emasculated their minds they may even, if occasion offers, so changeable are human affairs, raise up their empire afresh, and that God may a second time elect them.

I think the sign of circumcision is so important that I could believe it alone would preserve the nation forever. Indeed, I could go further, if the foundations of their religion have not sapped their mental strength. Human affairs are so changeable that I could even believe they might rebuild their empire if the opportunity arises. And God might choose them a second time.

Of such a possibility we have a very famous example in the Chinese. They, too, have some distinctive mark on their heads which they most scrupulously observe, and by which they keep themselves apart from everyone else, and have thus kept themselves during so many thousand years that they far surpass all other nations in antiquity. They have not always retained empire, but they have recovered it when lost, and doubtless will do so again after the spirit of the Tartars becomes relaxed through the luxury of riches and pride.

The Chinese offer a very famous example of such a possibility. They too have a distinctive mark on their heads, a custom they follow with the greatest care. Through this mark, they keep themselves apart from everyone else. They have preserved themselves this way for so many thousands of years that they far surpass all other nations in age. They have not always kept their empire, but they have recovered it after losing it. They will undoubtedly recover it again once wealth, luxury, and pride weaken the spirit of the Tartars.

Lastly, if any one wishes to maintain that the Jews, from this or from any other cause, have been chosen by God for ever, I will not gainsay him if he will admit that this choice, whether temporary or eternal, has no regard, in so far as it is peculiar to the Jews, to aught but dominion and physical advantages (for by such alone can one nation be distinguished from another), whereas in regard to intellect and true virtue, every nation is on a par with the rest, and God has not in these respects chosen one people rather than another.

Finally, someone may claim that God has chosen the Jews forever, for this reason or any other. I will not dispute that claim if they accept one condition. Whether temporary or eternal, this choice, insofar as it is unique to the Jews, concerns only political power and physical advantages. For these advantages alone can distinguish one nation from another. But in intellect and true virtue, every nation is equal to all the others. In these respects, God has not chosen one people over another.