1. Appearances exist for us in four ways. Either things appear even as they are; or having no existence, neither do they appear to have it; or they exist, and appear not; or they exist not, and yet appear. So, in all these cases, to hit the mark is the work of him who hath been taught in philosophy.
1. Things can appear to us in four ways. They may exist and appear to exist. They may not exist and not appear to exist. They may exist but appear not to exist. Or they may not exist yet appear to exist. In all these cases, judging correctly is the task of someone trained in philosophy.
2. But whatever it be that afflicts us, it is to that thing that the remedy is to be applied. If it is the sophisms of the Pyrrhonists and Academics that afflict us, to them let us apply the remedy. If it is the delusiveness of things, whereby that appeareth to be good which is not so, to that let us seek for the remedy. If a habit afflicts us, against that must we endeavor to find some remedy. And what remedy is to be found against a habit? The contrary habit. Thou hearest the ignorant when they say, The wretched man is dead; his father is perishing with grief for him, or his mother; he was cut off, yea, and untimely, and in a strange land. Hearken, then, to the contrary words. Tear thyself away from such utterances. Against habit set the contrary habit. Against the words of the Sophists have the maxims of philosophers and the exercise and constant usage of them; against the delusiveness of things have clear natural conceptions ever burnished and ready.
2. Whatever troubles us, we must apply the remedy to that very thing. If the misleading arguments of the Pyrrhonists and Academics trouble us, let us apply the remedy to them. If appearances deceive us, making something seem good when it is not, let us seek the remedy for that. If a habit troubles us, we must try to find a remedy for it. And what remedy can we find for a habit? The opposite habit. You hear ignorant people say, The poor man is dead. His father or mother is dying of grief for him. His life was cut short, too soon, and in a foreign land. Listen, then, to words that say the opposite. Pull yourself away from such statements. Counter a habit with the opposite habit. Against the arguments of the Sophists, use the principles of philosophers, practicing and applying them constantly. Against deceptive appearances, keep clear natural concepts polished and ready.
Plato’s school continued in Athens under the name of the Academy. In its later years, it produced little beyond logical puzzles.
3. Whenever death may appear to be an evil, have ready the thought that it is right to avoid evils, and that death is unavoidable. For what shall I do? whither shall I flee from it? Let it be granted that I am no Sarpedon, son of Zeus, to speak in that lofty style: I go either to do great deeds myself, or to give another the chance of doing them; though I myself fail I shall not grudge it to another to do nobly. Let it be granted that this is above us; still can we not at least rise to the height of that? And whither shall I flee from death? declare to me the place; declare to me the men among whom I shall go, to whom death comes never near; declare to me the charms against it. If I have none, what would ye have me do? I cannot escape death—shall I not then escape the fear of death? shall I die lamenting and trembling? In this is the source of suffering, to wish for something, and that it should not come to pass; and thence it is that when I am able to alter outward things at my desire, I do so, but when not, I am ready to tear out the eyes of him that hindereth me. For man is so made by nature that he will not bear to be deprived of the Good nor to fall into the Evil. And in the end, when I am neither able to alter outward things nor to tear out the eyes of him that hindereth me, I sit down and groan and rail on whomsoever I can, Zeus and the other Gods;—for if they neglect me, what have I to do with them? Yea, but thou wilt be an impious man. And how shall I be worse off than I am now? Here is the whole matter: Remember that unless religion and profit meet in the same thing, religion cannot be saved in any man. Do not these things mightily convince of their truth?
3. Whenever death seems an evil, keep this thought ready: it is right to avoid evils, but death is unavoidable. What can I do? Where can I flee from it? Granted, I am no Sarpedon, son of Zeus, able to speak in such a noble way: I go either to do great deeds myself or to give someone else the chance to do them. Even if I fail, I will not resent another person's noble deeds. Granted, this is beyond us. Still, can we not at least rise to this thought? Where can I flee from death? Show me the place. Show me the people I can join whom death never approaches. Show me the charms that protect against it. If I have none, what would you have me do? I cannot escape death. Should I not then escape the fear of death? Must I die weeping and trembling? This is the source of suffering: wanting something and not having it happen. So, when I can change outside circumstances to suit my wishes, I do. When I cannot, I am ready to tear out the eyes of whoever stops me. Human nature is such that we cannot bear to lose what is good or suffer what is evil. In the end, I can neither change outside circumstances nor tear out the eyes of whoever stops me. Then I sit down, groaning and cursing whoever I can, Zeus and the other gods included. If they neglect me, what have I to do with them? Yes, but you will be irreverent toward the gods. And how will that leave me worse off than I am now? Here is the whole point: remember that unless religion and personal benefit coincide, no one can remain religious. Do these arguments not give powerful grounds for accepting their truth?
“Friend, if indeed, escaping from this war, we were destined thereafter to an ageless and deathless life, then neither would I fight in the van nor set thee in the press of glorious battle. But now, since death in a thousand kinds stands everywhere against us, which no man shall fly from nor elude, we go; either we shall give glory to another, or he to us.” Sarpedon’s speech, Iliad, xii. 322-8.
4. Let the Pyrrhonist and the Academic come and make their attack—I, for my part, have no leisure for such discussions, nor am I able to argue in defense of general consent. For if I had a suit about a little piece of land, would I not call in another to argue for me? Wherewith shall I be satisfied? With that which concerns the matter in hand. How perception takes place, whether by the whole man or by parts, perhaps I know not how to declare: both opinions perplex me. But that thou and I are not the same I know very clearly. Whence know you this? Never, when I wish to eat, do I carry the morsel to another man’s mouth, but to my own. Never, when I wish to take a piece of bread, do I lay hold of a broom, but I always go to the bread, as to a mark. And ye who deny the truth of perception, what do ye other than I? Which of you, desiring to go to the bath, ever went into a mill? What then? Ought we not, according to our abilities, to busy ourselves with the upholding of general consent, and raising defenses against all that opposeth the same? And who denies it? But let him do it that can, that hath leisure; but he that trembleth, and is troubled, and his heart is broken within him, let him spend his time on something different.
4. Let the Pyrrhonist and the Academic come and attack. For my part, I have no time for such discussions. Nor can I argue in defense of what we all accept as true. If I had a lawsuit over a little piece of land, wouldn’t I call in someone to argue for me? What will satisfy me? Whatever concerns the matter at hand. Perhaps I cannot explain how perception works, whether through the whole person or through separate parts. Both views puzzle me. But I know very clearly that you and I are not the same person. How do you know this? When I want to eat, I never carry the food to someone else’s mouth, but to my own. When I want a piece of bread, I never reach for a broom. I always head straight for the bread, as if aiming at a target. And you who deny that perception is reliable, what do you do differently from me? Which of you, wanting to go to the bath, ever went into a mill? What then? Shouldn’t we do what we can to uphold what we all accept as true? Shouldn’t we defend it against everything that opposes it? Who denies that? But let those who can do it, and who have the time, take on that task. Those who tremble, who are troubled and brokenhearted, should spend their time on something else.
General consent. The well-known philosophical doctrine that whatever all people believe must be true. It has often served as the basis for arguments against various forms of Skepticism.