The People

As, before putting up a large building, the architect surveys and sounds the site to see if it will bear the weight, the wise legislator does not begin by laying down laws good in themselves, but by investigating the fitness of the people, for which they are destined, to receive them. Plato refused to legislate for the Arcadians and the Cyrenæans, because he knew that both peoples were rich and could not put up with equality; and good laws and bad men were found together in Crete, because Minos had inflicted discipline on a people already burdened with vice.

Before putting up a large building, an architect examines and tests the ground to see whether it can bear the weight. A wise lawmaker takes the same approach. Rather than starting with laws that are good in themselves, the lawmaker first asks whether the people can accept them. Plato refused to make laws for the Arcadians and the Cyrenæans because he knew both peoples were wealthy. Neither people could tolerate equality. And in Crete, good laws existed alongside bad people because Minos had imposed discipline on a people already burdened with vice.

A thousand nations have achieved earthly greatness, that could never have endured good laws; even such as could have endured them could have done so only for a very brief period of their long history. Most peoples, like most men, are docile only in youth; as they grow old they become incorrigible. When once customs have become established and prejudices inveterate, it is dangerous and useless to attempt their reformation; the people, like the foolish and cowardly patients who rave at sight of the doctor, can no longer bear that any one should lay hands on its faults to remedy them.

A thousand nations have achieved worldly greatness but could never have tolerated good laws. Even nations capable of tolerating good laws could have done so only briefly in their long histories. Most peoples, like most individuals, are willing to be guided only when young. As they grow older, they become impossible to reform. Once customs are established and prejudices deeply rooted, trying to change them is dangerous and useless. The people can no longer bear to have anyone try to correct their faults. They are like foolish, cowardly patients who rage at the sight of a doctor.

There are indeed times in the history of States when, just as some kinds of illness turn men's heads and make them forget the past, periods of violence and revolutions do to peoples what these crises do to individuals: horror of the past takes the place of forgetfulness, and the State, set on fire by civil wars, is born again, so to speak, from its ashes, and takes on anew, fresh from the jaws of death, the vigour of youth. Such were Sparta at the time of Lycurgus, Rome after the Tarquins, and, in modern times, Holland and Switzerland after the expulsion of the tyrants.

There are indeed times in a State’s history when violence and revolution affect peoples as certain illnesses affect individuals. Just as these illnesses disturb people’s minds and make them forget the past, such upheavals bring horror of the past instead of forgetfulness. The State, consumed by the flames of civil war, is reborn, so to speak, from its ashes. Having just escaped death, the State regains the energy of youth. Such was Sparta in the time of Lycurgus, and Rome after the Tarquins. In modern times, the same was true of Holland and Switzerland after the tyrants were expelled.

But such events are rare; they are exceptions, the cause of which is always to be found in the particular constitution of the State concerned. They cannot even happen twice to the same people, for it can make itself free as long as it remains barbarous, but not when the civic impulse has lost its vigour. Then disturbances may destroy it, but revolutions cannot mend it: it needs a master, and not a liberator. Free peoples, be mindful of maxim; "Liberty may be gained, but can never be recovered."

But such events are rare. They are exceptions, always caused by the particular structure of the State concerned. Such events cannot even happen twice to the same people. A people can free itself as long as it remains uncivilized, but not once its civic spirit has faded. Then unrest may destroy that people, but revolutions cannot restore it. It needs a master, not a liberator. Free peoples, remember this principle: "Liberty may be gained, but can never be recovered."

Youth is not infancy. There is for nations, as for men, a period of youth, or, shall we say, maturity, before which they should not be made subject to laws; but the maturity of a people is not always easily recognisable, and, if it is anticipated, the work is spoilt. One people is amenable to discipline from the beginning; another, not after ten centuries. Russia will never be really civilised, because it was civilised too soon. Peter had a genius for imitation; but he lacked true genius, which is creative and makes all from nothing. He did some good things, but most of what he did was out of place. He saw that his people was barbarous, but did not see that it was not ripe for civilisation: he wanted to civilise it when it needed only hardening. His first wish was to make Germans or Englishmen, when he ought to have been making Russians; and he prevented his subjects from ever becoming what they might have been by persuading them that they were what they are not. In this fashion too a French teacher turns out his pupil to be an infant prodigy, and for the rest of his life to be nothing whatsoever. The empire of Russia will aspire to conquer Europe, and will itself be conquered. The Tartars, its subjects or neighbours, will become its masters and ours, by a revolution which I regard as inevitable. Indeed, all the kings of Europe are working in concert to hasten its coming.

Youth is not infancy. Nations, like people, have a period of youth, or perhaps we should say maturity. Before reaching that stage, they should not be placed under laws. But a people’s maturity is not always easy to recognize. If laws are imposed too soon, the work is ruined. One people can accept discipline from the start. Another cannot, even after ten centuries. Russia will never be truly civilized, because it was civilized too soon. Peter had a genius for imitation. But he lacked true genius, which creates and makes everything from nothing. He did some good things, but most of what he did was inappropriate. He saw that his people were barbarous. But he failed to see that they were not ready for civilization. He wanted to civilize them when they only needed toughening. His first aim was to make Germans or Englishmen, when he should have been making Russians. He convinced his subjects that they were something they were not. By doing so, he prevented them from ever becoming what they might have been. In the same way, a French teacher makes his pupil a child prodigy who amounts to nothing in later life. The empire of Russia will seek to conquer Europe, and will itself be conquered. The Tartars, Russia’s subjects or neighbors, will become its masters and ours through a revolution I regard as inevitable. Indeed, all the kings of Europe are working together to hasten that revolution.