The second period of Machiavelli’s life was spent in the service of the free Republic of Florence, which flourished, as stated above, from the expulsion of the Medici in 1494 until their return in 1512. After serving four years in one of the public offices he was appointed Chancellor and Secretary to the Second Chancery, the Ten of Liberty and Peace. Here we are on firm ground when dealing with the events of Machiavelli’s life, for during this time he took a leading part in the affairs of the Republic, and we have its decrees, records, and dispatches to guide us, as well as his own writings. A mere recapitulation of a few of his transactions with the statesmen and soldiers of his time gives a fair indication of his activities, and supplies the sources from which he drew the experiences and characters which illustrate The Prince.
Machiavelli spent the second period of his life serving the free Republic of Florence. As noted above, it flourished from the Medici’s expulsion in 1494 until their return in 1512. After four years in a public office, he became Chancellor and Secretary to the Second Chancery, the Ten of Liberty and Peace. Our knowledge of Machiavelli’s life during this period rests on solid evidence. He played a leading role in the Republic’s affairs. Its decrees, records, and official correspondence guide us, along with his own writings. A brief review of some of his dealings with the statesmen and soldiers of his time shows his activities. It also reveals the sources of the experiences and characters he drew on to illustrate The Prince.
His first mission was in 1499 to Catherina Sforza, “my lady of Forli” of The Prince, from whose conduct and fate he drew the moral that it is far better to earn the confidence of the people than to rely on fortresses. This is a very noticeable principle in Machiavelli, and is urged by him in many ways as a matter of vital importance to princes.
His first mission, in 1499, was to Catherina Sforza, “my lady of Forli” in The Prince. Her actions and fate taught him that earning the people’s trust is far better than relying on fortresses. This principle stands out in Machiavelli’s work. He stresses it in many ways as vitally important to princes.
In 1500 he was sent to France to obtain terms from Louis XII for continuing the war against Pisa: this king it was who, in his conduct of affairs in Italy, committed the five capital errors in statecraft summarized in The Prince, and was consequently driven out. He, also, it was who made the dissolution of his marriage a condition of support to Pope Alexander VI; which leads Machiavelli to refer those who urge that such promises should be kept to what he has written concerning the faith of princes.
In 1500, he was sent to France to negotiate terms with Louis XII for continuing the war against Pisa. In managing affairs in Italy, this king made the five major errors of statecraft summarized in The Prince. As a result, he was driven out. He also made the annulment of his marriage a condition for supporting Pope Alexander VI. This leads Machiavelli to address those who insist that such promises should be kept. He refers them to what he has written about princes keeping their word.
Machiavelli’s public life was largely occupied with events arising out of the ambitions of Pope Alexander VI and his son, Cesare Borgia, the Duke Valentino, and these characters fill a large space of The Prince. Machiavelli never hesitates to cite the actions of the duke for the benefit of usurpers who wish to keep the states they have seized; he can, indeed, find no precepts to offer so good as the pattern of Cesare Borgia’s conduct, insomuch that Cesare is acclaimed by some critics as the “hero” of The Prince. Yet in The Prince the duke is in point of fact cited as a type of the man who rises on the fortune of others, and falls with them; who takes every course that might be expected from a prudent man but the course which will save him; who is prepared for all eventualities but the one which happens; and who, when all his abilities fail to carry him through, exclaims that it was not his fault, but an extraordinary and unforeseen fatality.
Much of Machiavelli’s public life involved events driven by the ambitions of Pope Alexander VI and his son, Cesare Borgia. Cesare was also known as Duke Valentino. Both figures feature prominently in The Prince. Machiavelli never hesitates to use the duke’s actions as examples for usurpers who want to keep the states they seized. Indeed, he can offer no better advice than to follow Cesare Borgia’s example. Some critics therefore hail Cesare as the “hero” of The Prince. Yet the book actually presents the duke as someone who rises through others’ good fortune and falls with them. He takes every step a cautious, sensible man might take, except the one that would save him. He prepares for every possibility except the one that happens. When all his abilities fail to see him through, he declares that it was not his fault. Instead, he blames an extraordinary and unforeseen disaster.
On the death of Pius III, in 1503, Machiavelli was sent to Rome to watch the election of his successor, and there he saw Cesare Borgia cheated into allowing the choice of the College to fall on Giuliano delle Rovere (Julius II), who was one of the cardinals that had most reason to fear the duke. Machiavelli, when commenting on this election, says that he who thinks new favours will cause great personages to forget old injuries deceives himself. Julius did not rest until he had ruined Cesare.
After Pius III died in 1503, Machiavelli was sent to Rome to observe the election of his successor. There he saw Cesare Borgia tricked into allowing the College of Cardinals to choose Giuliano delle Rovere (Julius II). Julius was one of the cardinals who had the most reason to fear the duke. Commenting on this election, Machiavelli says that anyone who thinks new favors make powerful people forget old wrongs deceives himself. Julius did not rest until he had ruined Cesare.
It was to Julius II that Machiavelli was sent in 1506, when that pontiff was commencing his enterprise against Bologna; which he brought to a successful issue, as he did many of his other adventures, owing chiefly to his impetuous character. It is in reference to Pope Julius that Machiavelli moralizes on the resemblance between Fortune and women, and concludes that it is the bold rather than the cautious man that will win and hold them both.
Machiavelli was sent to Pope Julius II in 1506, when the pope was beginning his campaign against Bologna. Julius brought it to a successful conclusion, as he did many of his other ventures, chiefly through his impulsive nature. Referring to Pope Julius, Machiavelli reflects on the similarity between Fortune and women. He concludes that bold men, rather than cautious ones, will win and hold on to both.
It is impossible to follow here the varying fortunes of the Italian states, which in 1507 were controlled by France, Spain, and Germany, with results that have lasted to our day; we are concerned with those events, and with the three great actors in them, so far only as they impinge on the personality of Machiavelli. He had several meetings with Louis XII of France, and his estimate of that monarch’s character has already been alluded to. Machiavelli has painted Ferdinand of Aragon as the man who accomplished great things under the cloak of religion, but who in reality had no mercy, faith, humanity, or integrity; and who, had he allowed himself to be influenced by such motives, would have been ruined. The Emperor Maximilian was one of the most interesting men of the age, and his character has been drawn by many hands; but Machiavelli, who was an envoy at his court in 1507-8, reveals the secret of his many failures when he describes him as a secretive man, without force of character—ignoring the human agencies necessary to carry his schemes into effect, and never insisting on the fulfilment of his wishes.
We cannot trace here the changing fortunes of the Italian states. In 1507, France, Spain, and Germany controlled them, with effects that have lasted to the writer’s own day. We consider these events and their three main figures only as they relate to Machiavelli’s character. He met Louis XII of France several times. His judgment of that king’s character has already been mentioned. Machiavelli portrayed Ferdinand of Aragon as a man who achieved great things under the cover of religion. In reality, Ferdinand had no mercy, faith, humanity, or integrity. Had he let these qualities guide him, he would have been ruined. Emperor Maximilian was one of the most interesting men of his age. Many writers have described his character. Machiavelli served as an envoy at his court in 1507–8. His description reveals the reason for Maximilian’s many failures. He was secretive and lacked strength of character. He ignored the people whose help he needed to carry out his plans. He never insisted that his wishes be fulfilled.
The remaining years of Machiavelli’s official career were filled with events arising out of the League of Cambrai, made in 1508 between the three great European powers already mentioned and the pope, with the object of crushing the Venetian Republic. This result was attained in the battle of Vaila, when Venice lost in one day all that she had won in eight hundred years. Florence had a difficult part to play during these events, complicated as they were by the feud which broke out between the pope and the French, because friendship with France had dictated the entire policy of the Republic. When, in 1511, Julius II finally formed the Holy League against France, and with the assistance of the Swiss drove the French out of Italy, Florence lay at the mercy of the Pope, and had to submit to his terms, one of which was that the Medici should be restored. The return of the Medici to Florence on 1st September 1512, and the consequent fall of the Republic, was the signal for the dismissal of Machiavelli and his friends, and thus put an end to his public career, for, as we have seen, he died without regaining office.
The remaining years of Machiavelli’s official career were filled with events linked to the League of Cambrai. This alliance was formed in 1508 between the three great European powers already mentioned and the pope. Its aim was to crush the Venetian Republic. That aim was achieved at the Battle of Vaila. In one day, Venice lost all it had gained in eight hundred years. Florence faced a difficult role in these events. The conflict that broke out between the pope and the French made its position even harder. Friendship with France had shaped the Republic’s entire policy. In 1511, Julius II finally formed the Holy League against France. With Swiss help, he drove the French out of Italy. Florence was then at the pope’s mercy and had to accept his terms. One condition was the restoration of the Medici. The Medici returned to Florence on September 1, 1512, and the Republic fell. These events led to the dismissal of Machiavelli and his friends, ending his public career. As we have seen, he died without returning to office.