Solon's Life

I. Solon the son of Execestides, a native of Salamis, was the first person who introduced among the Athenians, an ordinance for the lowering⁹ of debts; for this was the name given to the release of the bodies and possessions of the debtors. For men used to borrow on the security of their own persons, and many became slaves in consequence of their inability to pay; and as seven talents were owed to him as a part of his paternal inheritance when he succeeded to it, he was the first person who made a composition with his debtors, and who exhorted the other men who had money owing to them to do likewise, and this ordinance was called σεισάχθεια; and the reason why is plain. After that he enacted his other laws, which it would take a long time to enumerate; and he wrote them on wooden revolving tablets.

I. Solon, the son of Execestides, was a native of Salamis. He was the first to introduce an ordinance in Athens for the reduction⁹ of debts. This was the name given to the release of debtors and their possessions. People used to borrow money using their own persons as security. Many became slaves because they could not pay. When Solon received his paternal inheritance, he was owed seven talents as part of it. He was the first to reach a settlement with his debtors, and he urged other creditors to do the same. The ordinance was called σεισάχθεια, and the reason for the name is plain. After that, he enacted his other laws, which would take a long time to list. He wrote them on revolving wooden tablets.

II. But what was his most important act of all was, when there had been a great dispute about his native land Salamis, between the Athenians and Megarians, and when the Athenians had met with many disasters in war, and had passed a decree that if any one proposed to the people to go to war for the sake of Salamis he should be punished with death, he then pretended to be mad and putting on a crown rushed into the market place, and there he recited to the Athenians by the agency of a crier, the elegies which he had composed, and which were all directed to the subject of Salamis, and by these means he excited them; and so they made war again upon the Megarians and conquered them by means of Solon. And the elegies which had the greatest influence on the Athenians were these:—

II. But his most important act came during a great dispute between the Athenians and Megarians over his native land, Salamis. The Athenians had suffered many disasters in the war. They had passed a decree that anyone who proposed going to war for Salamis should be put to death. He then pretended to be mad, put on a crown, and rushed into the marketplace. There he had a crier recite to the Athenians the elegies he had composed, all of them about Salamis. In this way he stirred the Athenians to action. They went to war against the Megarians again and conquered them with Solon’s help. The elegies that had the greatest influence on the Athenians were these:

And another was:—

And another was:

He also persuaded them to take possession of the Thracian Chersonesus, and in order that it might appear that the Athenians had got possession of Salamis not by force alone, but also with justice, he opened some tombs, and showed that the corpses buried in them were all turned towards the east, according to the Athenian fashion of sepulture; likewise the tombs themselves all looked east, and the titles of the boroughs to which the dead belonged were inscribed on them, which was a custom peculiar to the Athenians. Some also say that it was he who added to the catalogue of Homer, after the lines:—

He also persuaded them to take possession of the Thracian Chersonesus. He wanted to show that the Athenians had taken Salamis not only by force, but also with justice. So he opened some tombs and showed that the bodies buried in them all faced east, as was the Athenian burial custom. The tombs themselves also all faced east. They were inscribed with the names of the boroughs to which the dead belonged, a custom peculiar to the Athenians. Some also say that he added to Homer’s catalogue after the lines:

These other verses:—

These other verses:

III. And ever after this time the people was willingly obedient to him, and was contented to be governed by him; but he did not choose to be their ruler, and moreover, as Sosicrates relates, he, as far as in him lay, hindered also his relative Pisistratus from being so, when he saw that he was inclined to such a step. Rushing into one of the assemblies armed with a spear and shield, he forewarned the people of the design of Pisistratus, and not only that but told them that he was prepared to assist them; and these were his words: “Ye men of Athens, I am wiser than some of you, and braver than others. Wiser than those of you who do not perceive the treachery of Pisistratus; and braver than those who are aware of it, but out of fear hold their peace.” But the council, being in the interest of Pisistratus, said that he was mad, on which he spoke as follows:—

III. From then on, the people willingly obeyed him and were content to be governed by him. But he did not want to rule them. Sosicrates also says that he did everything he could to prevent his relative Pisistratus from becoming ruler. He saw that Pisistratus was inclined to take power. Armed with a spear and shield, he rushed into an assembly and warned the people of Pisistratus’s plan. He also told them he was ready to help them. These were his words: “Men of Athens, I am wiser than some of you and braver than others. I am wiser than those who do not see Pisistratus’s treachery. I am braver than those who know about it but remain silent out of fear.” But the council supported Pisistratus and said that he was mad. In response, he spoke as follows:

And these elegiac verses were written by him about the tyranny of Pisistratus, which he foretold,

He wrote these elegiac verses about the tyranny of Pisistratus, which he had predicted,

IV. And when Pisistratus had obtained the supreme power, he, as he would not influence him, laid down his arms before the chief council-house, and said, “O my country, I have stood by you in word and deed.” And then he sailed away to Egypt, and Cyprus, and came to Crœsus. And while at his court being asked by him, “Who appears to you to be happy?”¹³ He replied, “Tellus the Athenian, and Cleobis and Biton,” and enumerated other commonly spoken of instances. But some people say, that once Crœsus adorned himself in every possible manner, and took his seat upon his throne, and then asked Solon whether he had ever seen a more beautiful sight. But he said, “Yes, I have seen cocks and pheasants, and peacocks; for they are adorned with natural colours, and such as are ten thousand times more beautiful.” Afterwards leaving Sardis he went to Cilicia, and there he founded a city which he called Soli after his own name; and he placed in it a few Athenians as colonists, who in time departed from the strict use of their native language, and were said to speak Solecisms; and the inhabitants of that city are called Solensians; but those of Soli in Cyprus are called Solians.

IV. When Pisistratus took supreme power, Solon could not influence him. So he laid down his arms in front of the chief council-house and said, “O my country, I have stood by you in word and deed.” He then sailed to Egypt and Cyprus, and came to Crœsus. At his court, Crœsus asked him, “Who seems happy to you?”¹³ Solon replied, “Tellus the Athenian, and Cleobis and Biton.” He also listed other commonly cited examples. But some people tell a different story. Once, Crœsus dressed himself in every possible finery and sat on his throne. He then asked Solon if he had ever seen a more beautiful sight. Solon said, “Yes, I have seen cocks, pheasants, and peacocks. Their natural colors are ten thousand times more beautiful.” After leaving Sardis, Solon went to Cilicia. There he founded a city and named it Soli after himself. He settled a few Athenians there as colonists. In time, they stopped speaking their native language correctly and were said to speak Solecisms. The inhabitants of that city are called Solensians, but those of Soli in Cyprus are called Solians.

V. And when he learnt that Pisistratus continued to rule in Athens as a tyrant, he wrote these verses on the Athenians:—

V. When he learned that Pisistratus still ruled Athens as a tyrant, he wrote these verses about the Athenians:

This, then, he said to them.

That is what he said to them.

VI. But Pisistratus, when he was leaving Athens, wrote him a letter in the following terms:—

VI. But as Pisistratus was leaving Athens, he wrote him the following letter:

I am not the only one of the Greeks who has seized the sovereignty of his country, nor am I one who had no right whatever to do so, since I am of the race of Codrus; for I have only recovered what the Athenians swore that they would give to Codrus and all his family, and what they afterwards deprived them of. And in all other respects I sin neither against men nor against gods, but I allow the Athenians to live under the laws which you established amongst them, and they are now living in a better manner than they would if they were under a democracy; for I allow no one to behave with violence: and I, though I am the tyrant, derive no other advantage beyond my superiority in rank and honour, being content with the fixed honours which belonged to the former kings. And every one of the Athenians brings the tithe of his possessions, not to me, but to the proper place in order that it may be devoted to the public sacrifices of the city; and for any other public purposes, or for any emergencies of war which may arise.

I am not the only Greek who has seized power in his own country. Nor am I without any right to do so, since I am descended from Codrus. I have only taken back what the Athenians swore to give Codrus and his entire family, but later took away from them. In all other respects, I do no wrong to either men or gods. I let the Athenians live under the laws you established for them. They now live better than they would under a democracy, because I allow no one to act violently. And though I am the tyrant, I gain nothing beyond higher rank and honor. I am content with the established honors that belonged to the former kings. Every Athenian brings a tenth of his possessions, not to me, but to the proper place. This is used for the city's public sacrifices, other public purposes, and any emergencies of war that may arise.

But I do not blame you for laying open my plans, for I know that you did so out of regard for the city rather than out of dislike to me; and also because you did not know what sort of government I was about to establish; since, if you had been acquainted with it, you would have been content to live under it and would not have fled. Now, therefore, return home again; believing me even without my swearing to you that Solon shall never receive any harm at the hands of Pisistratus; know also that none of my enemies have suffered any evil from me; and if you will consent to be one of my friends, you shall be among the first; for I know that there is no treachery or faithlessness in you. Or if you wish to live at Athens in any other manner, you shall be allowed to do so; only do not deprive yourself of your country because of my actions.

But I do not blame you for revealing my plans. I know you did it out of concern for the city, not because you disliked me. You also did not know what kind of government I was about to establish. If you had known, you would have been willing to live under it and would not have fled. So come home again. Believe me, even without an oath: Solon will never suffer any harm at the hands of Pisistratus. Know, too, that none of my enemies have suffered any harm from me. If you agree to be one of my friends, you will be among the foremost. For I know that you are neither treacherous nor unfaithful. Or, if you wish to live in Athens on any other terms, you may do so. Only do not deprive yourself of your country because of my actions.

Thus wrote Pisistratus.

This is what Pisistratus wrote.

VII. Solon also said, that the limit of human life was seventy years, and he appears to have been a most excellent lawgiver, for he enjoined, “that if any one did not support his parents he should be accounted infamous; and that the man who squandered his patrimony should be equally so, and the inactive man was liable to prosecution by any one who choose to impeach him.” But Lysias, in his speech against Nicias, says that Draco first proposed this law, but that it was Solon who enacted it. He also prohibited all who lived in debauchery from ascending the tribunal; and he diminished the honours paid to Athletes who were victorious in the games, fixing the prize for a victor at Olympia at five hundred drachmæ,¹⁴ and for one who conquered at the Isthmian games at one hundred; and in the same proportion did he fix the prizes for the other games, for he said, that it was absurd to give such great honours to those men as ought to be reserved for those only who died in the wars; and their sons he ordered to be educated and bred up at the public expense. And owing to this encouragement, the Athenians behave themselves nobly and valiantly in war; as for instance, Polyzelus, and Cynægirus, and Callimachus, and all the soldiers who fought at Marathon, and Harmodius, and Aristogiton, and Miltiades, and numberless other heroes.

VII. Solon also said that the limit of human life was seventy years. He seems to have been an excellent lawgiver. He decreed “that anyone who failed to support their parents should be considered disgraced. Anyone who squandered their inheritance should be considered equally disgraced. Anyone could bring charges against a person who did not work.” But Lysias, in his speech against Nicias, says that Draco first proposed this law, while Solon enacted it. Solon also prohibited all who lived in debauchery from speaking before the tribunal. He reduced the honors paid to athletes who won at the games. He set the prize for a victor at Olympia at five hundred drachmas,¹⁴ and for a victor at the Isthmian games at one hundred. He set prizes for the other games in the same proportion. He said it was absurd to give athletes such great honors, which should be reserved for those who died in war. He ordered that the sons of those who died in war be educated and raised at public expense. Because of this encouragement, the Athenians conduct themselves nobly and bravely in war. Examples include Polyzelus, Cynægirus, Callimachus, and all the soldiers who fought at Marathon, as well as Harmodius, Aristogiton, Miltiades, and countless other heroes.

But as for the Athletes, their training is very expensive, and their victories injurious, and they are crowned rather as conquerors of their country than of their antagonists, and when they become old, as Euripides says:—

But athletes are very expensive to train, and their victories are harmful. They are crowned as if they had conquered their country rather than their opponents. And when they grow old, as Euripides says:

IX. So Solon, appreciating these facts, treated them with moderation. This also was an admirable regulation of his, that a guardian of orphans should not live with their mother, and that no one should be appointed a guardian, to whom the orphans’ property would come if they died. Another excellent law was, that a seal engraver might not keep an impression of any ring which had been sold by him, and that if a person struck out the eye of a man who had but one, he should lose both his own, and that no one should claim what he had not deposited, otherwise death should be his punishment. If an archon was detected being drunk, that too was a capital crime. And he compiled the poems of Homer, so that they might be recited by different bards, taking the cue from one another, so that where one had left off the next one might take him up, so that it was Solon rather than Pisistratus who brought Homer to light, as Dieuchidas says, in the fifth book of his History of Megara, and the most celebrated of his verses were:—

IX. So Solon understood these facts and dealt with them moderately. Another admirable rule of his was that an orphan’s guardian should not live with the orphan’s mother. Nor should anyone be appointed guardian who would inherit the orphans’ property if they died. Another excellent law forbade a seal engraver to keep an impression of any ring he had sold. Another required that anyone who struck out the eye of a one-eyed man should lose both of his own eyes. No one could claim something he had not deposited. Anyone who did so would be put to death. If an archon was caught drunk, that too was a capital offense. Solon also compiled Homer’s poems so that different bards could recite them in turn. Each bard would take over where the previous one had left off. So it was Solon rather than Pisistratus who brought Homer to light, as Dieuchidas says in the fifth book of his History of Megara. The most celebrated of the verses were:

And the rest of that passage—“And Solon was the first person who called the thirtieth day of the month ἔνη καὶ νέα.”¹⁵ He was the first person also who assembled the nine archons together to deliver their opinions, as Apollodorus tells us in the second book of his Treatise on Lawgivers. And once, when there was a sedition in the city, he took part neither with the citizens, nor with the inhabitants of the plain, nor with the men of the sea-coast.

And the rest of that passage reads: “Solon was the first person to call the thirtieth day of the month ἔνη καὶ νέα.”¹⁵ He was also the first to bring the nine archons together to give their opinions. Apollodorus tells us this in the second book of his Treatise on Lawgivers. Once, when there was unrest in the city, Solon took no side. He sided neither with the citizens, nor with the inhabitants of the plain, nor with the people of the sea-coast.

X. He used to say, too, that speech was the image of actions, and that the king was the mightiest man as to his power; but that laws were like cobwebs—for that if any trifling or powerless thing fell into them, they held it fast; but if a thing of any size fell into them, it broke the meshes and escaped. He used also to say that discourse ought to be sealed by silence, and silence by opportunity. It was also a saying of his, that those who had influence with tyrants, were like the pebbles which are used in making calculations; for that every one of those pebbles were sometimes worth more, and sometimes less, and so that the tyrants sometimes made each of these men of consequence, and sometimes neglected them. Being asked why he had made no law concerning parricides, he made answer, that he did not expect that any such person would exist. When he was asked how men could be most effectually deterred from committing injustice, he said, “If those who are not injured feel as much indignation as those who are.” Another apophthegm of his was, that satiety was generated by wealth, and insolence by satiety.

X. He also said that speech was the image of actions, and that the king was the most powerful man. But laws were like cobwebs. If anything small or weak fell into them, they held it fast. But if anything large fell into them, it broke through and escaped. He also said that speech should be followed by silence, and silence by the right opportunity to speak. He said that those who influenced tyrants were like the pebbles used in calculations. Each pebble was sometimes worth more and sometimes less. In the same way, tyrants sometimes made each of these men important and sometimes neglected them. When asked why he had made no law concerning those who killed their fathers, he answered that he did not expect such a person to exist. When asked how people could best be deterred from doing wrong, he said, “If those who are not injured feel as much indignation as those who are.” He also said that wealth leads to overindulgence, and overindulgence to insolence.

XI. He it was who taught the Athenians to regulate their days by the course of the moon; and he also forbade Thespis to perform and represent his tragedies, on the ground of falsehood being unprofitable; and when Pisistratus wounded himself, he said it all came of Thespis’s tragedies.

XI. He taught the Athenians to measure their days by the moon’s course. He also forbade Thespis to perform his tragedies, because he believed falsehood was unprofitable. When Pisistratus wounded himself, he said it all came from Thespis’s tragedies.

XII. He gave the following advice, as is recorded by Apollodorus in his Treatise on the Sects of Philosophers:—“Consider your honour, as a gentleman, of more weight than an oath.—Never speak falsely.—Pay attention to matters of importance.—Be not hasty in making friends; and do not cast off those whom you have made.—Rule, after you have first learnt to submit to rule.—Advise not what is most agreeable, but what is best.—Make reason your guide.—Do not associate with the wicked.—Honour the gods; respect your parents.”

XII. He gave the following advice, as Apollodorus records in his Treatise on the Sects of Philosophers: “Value your honor as a gentleman more than an oath. Never lie. Pay attention to important matters. Do not be quick to make friends, and do not abandon the friends you have made. Learn to obey before you rule. Advise people to do what is best, not what is most pleasing. Let reason guide you. Do not associate with wicked people. Honor the gods and respect your parents.”

XIII. They say also that when Mimnermus had written:—

XIII. They also say that when Mimnermus wrote:

Solon rebuked him, and said:—

Solon scolded him and said:

The following are some lines out of his poems:—

Here are some lines from his poems:

As for his having made laws, that is notorious; he also composed speeches to the people, and a book of suggestions to himself, and some elegiac poems, and five thousand verses about Salamis and the constitution of the Athenians; and some iambics and epodes.

It is well known that he made laws. He also wrote speeches for the people, a book of advice to himself, and some elegiac poems. He wrote five thousand verses about Salamis and the Athenian constitution, as well as some iambics and epodes.

XV. And on his statue is the following inscription—

XV. His statue bears the following inscription:

He flourished about the forty-sixth Olympiad, in the third year of which he was archon at Athens, as Sosicrates records; and it was in this year that he enacted his laws; and he died in Cyprus, after he had lived eighty years, having given charge to his relations to carry his bones to Salamis, and there to burn them to ashes, and to scatter the ashes on the ground. In reference to which Cratinus in his Chiron represents him as speaking thus:—

He lived and worked around the time of the forty-sixth Olympiad. According to Sosicrates, he was archon at Athens in its third year, and he enacted his laws that same year. He died in Cyprus at the age of eighty. He had instructed his relatives to carry his bones to Salamis, burn them to ashes there, and scatter the ashes on the ground. Referring to this, Cratinus portrays him speaking as follows in Chiron:

There is also an epigram in the before mentioned collection of poems, in various metres, in which I have made a collection of notices of all the illustrious men that have ever died, in every kind of metre and rhythm, in epigrams and odes. And it runs thus:—

The collection of poems mentioned earlier also contains an epigram. In that collection, I have gathered accounts of all the illustrious men who have ever died. I wrote them as epigrams and odes, using every kind of meter and rhythm. The epigram reads:

XVI. He also, as some say, was the author of the apophthegm—“Seek excess in nothing.” And Dioscorides, in his Commentaries, says, that, when he was lamenting his son, who was dead (with whose name I am not acquainted), and when some one said to him, “You do no good by weeping,” he replied, “But that is the very reason why I weep, because I do no good.”

XVI. Some also say that he coined the saying, “Avoid excess in everything.” In his Commentaries, Dioscorides says that he was mourning his dead son. I do not know his son’s name. Someone said to him, “Weeping does no good.” He replied, “But that is the very reason I weep, because it does no good.”

XVII. The following letters also are attributed to him:—

XVII. The following letters are also attributed to him:

You send me word that many people are plotting against you; but if you were to think of putting everyone of them out of the way, you would do no good; but some one whom you do not suspect would still plot against you, partly because he would fear for himself, and partly out of dislike to you for fearing all sorts of things; and he would think, too, that he would make the city grateful to him, even if you were not suspected. It is better, therefore, to abstain from the tyranny, in order to escape from blame. But if you absolutely must be a tyrant, then you had better provide for having a foreign force in the city superior to that of the citizens; and then no one need be formidable to you, nor need you put any one out of the way.

You tell me that many people are plotting against you. But even if you tried to kill them all, it would do no good. Someone you did not suspect would still plot against you. He would do this partly because he feared for himself, and partly because he disliked your constant fear. He would also think that the city would be grateful to him, even if you were not suspected. It is better, therefore, to give up your tyranny so that you escape blame. But if you absolutely must be a tyrant, you should station a foreign force in the city. Make sure it is stronger than the citizens. Then you need fear no one, and you need not kill anyone.

XVIII. My laws were not destined to be long of service to the Athenians, nor have you done any great good by purifying the city. For neither can the Deity nor lawgivers do much good to cities by themselves; but these people rather give this power, who, from time to time, can lead the people in any opinions they choose; so also the Deity and the laws, when the citizens are well governed, are useful; but when they are ill governed, they are no good. Nor are my laws or all the enactments that I made, any better; but those who were in power transgressed them, and did great injury to the commonwealth, inasmuch as they did not hinder Pisistratus from usurping the tyranny. Nor did they believe me when I gave them warning beforehand. But he obtained more credit than I did, who flattered the Athenians while I told him the truth: but I, placing my arms before the principal council-house, being wiser than they, told those who had no suspicion of it, that Pisistratus was desirous to make himself a tyrant; and I showed myself more valiant than those who hesitated to defend the state against him. But they condemned the madness of Solon. But at last I spoke loudly—“O, my country, I, Solon, here am ready to defend you by word and deed; but to these men I seem to be mad. So I will depart from you, being the only antagonist of Pisistratus; and let these men be his guards if they please.” For you know the man, my friend, and how cleverly he seized upon the tyranny. He first began by being a demagogue; then, having inflicted wounds on himself, he came to the Heliæa, crying out, and saying, “That he had been treated in this way by his enemies.” And he entreated the people to assign him as guards four hundred young men; and they, disregarding my advice, gave them to him. And they were all armed with bludgeons. And after that he put down the democracy. They in vain hoped to deliver the poor from their state of slavery, and so now they are all of them slaves to Pisistratus.

XVIII. My laws were not destined to serve the Athenians for long, nor has your purification of the city done much good. For neither the Deity nor lawmakers can do much good for cities on their own. Rather, that power belongs to those who can sway the people toward whatever opinions they choose. The Deity and the laws are useful when the citizens are well governed, but they are no good when the citizens are badly governed. My laws and all the measures I enacted are no better. Those in power broke them and did great harm to the state by failing to stop Pisistratus from seizing power as a tyrant. Nor did they believe me when I warned them beforehand. Instead, they believed Pisistratus more than me. He flattered the Athenians while I told him the truth. I placed my weapons before the main council house and warned those who suspected nothing that Pisistratus wanted to become a tyrant. I was wiser than they were. I also showed more courage than those who hesitated to defend the state against him. But they declared Solon mad. At last I cried out: “O, my country, I, Solon, am ready to defend you in word and deed. But these men think me mad. So I will leave you, the only man opposing Pisistratus, and let these men be his guards if they please.” For you know the man, my friend, and how cleverly he seized power as a tyrant. He began by appealing to the people. Then he wounded himself and came to the Heliæa, crying out and saying, “His enemies had treated him this way.” He begged the people to give him four hundred young men as guards. They ignored my advice and gave him the guards. All of them were armed with clubs. After that, he overthrew the democracy. The people had hoped in vain to free the poor from slavery, and now they are all slaves to Pisistratus.

I am well assured that I should suffer no evil at your hands. For before your assumption of the tyranny I was a friend of yours, and now my case is not different from that of any other Athenian who is not pleased with tyranny. And whether it is better for them to be governed by one individual, or to live under a democracy, that each person may decide according to his own sentiments. And I admit that of all tyrants you are the best. But I do not judge it to be good for me to return to Athens, lest any one should blame me, for, after having established equality of civil rights among the Athenians, and after having refused to be a tyrant myself when it was in my power, returning now and acquiescing in what you are doing.

I am sure you would do me no harm. I was your friend before you became a tyrant. Even now, I am no different from any other Athenian who dislikes tyranny. Each person can decide for themselves whether Athenians are better off under one ruler or a democracy. And I admit that you are the best of all tyrants. But I do not think I should return to Athens. I established equal civil rights among the Athenians and refused to become a tyrant when I had the power to do so. If I returned now and accepted what you are doing, someone might blame me.

XX. I thank you for your goodwill towards me. And, by Minerva, if I did not think it precious above everything to live in a democracy, I would willingly prefer living in your palace with you to living at Athens, since Pisistratus has made himself tyrant by force. But life is more pleasant to me where justice and equality prevail universally. However, I will come and see you, being anxious to enjoy your hospitality for a season.

XX. Thank you for your kindness to me. By Minerva, I value living in a democracy above everything else. If I did not, I would gladly live with you in your palace rather than in Athens. For Pisistratus has seized power there and become a tyrant. But I find life more pleasant where justice and equality prevail for everyone. Still, I will come and see you, as I am eager to enjoy your hospitality for a while.