Pythagoras's Life

I. Since we have now gone through the Ionian philosophy, which was derived from Thales, and the lives of the several illustrious men who were the chief ornaments of that school; we will now proceed to treat of the Italian School, which was founded by Pythagoras, the son of Mnesarchus, a seal engraver, as he is recorded to have been by Hermippus; a native of Samos, or as Aristoxenus asserts, a Tyrrhenian, and a native of one of the islands which the Athenians occupied after they had driven out the Tyrrhenians. But some authors say that he was the son of Marmacus, the son of Hippasus, the son of Euthyphron, the son of Cleonymus, who was an exile from Phlias; and that Marmacus settled in Samos, and that from this circumstance Pythagoras was called a Samian. After that he migrated to Lesbos, having come to Pherecydes with letters of recommendation from Zoilus, his uncle. And having made three silver goblets, he carried them to Egypt as a present for each of the three priests. He had brothers, the eldest of whom was named Eunomus, the middle one Tyrrhenus, and a slave named Zamolxis, to whom the Getæ sacrifice, believing him to be the same as Saturn, according to the account of Herodotus.¹⁰⁷

I. We have now covered the Ionian philosophy, which came from Thales, and the lives of its leading figures. We will now turn to the Italian School, founded by Pythagoras. According to Hermippus, Pythagoras was the son of Mnesarchus, a seal engraver. He came from Samos, or, as Aristoxenus says, he was a Tyrrhenian. Aristoxenus says he came from one of the islands the Athenians occupied after driving out the Tyrrhenians. But some authors say Pythagoras was the son of Marmacus. Marmacus was the son of Hippasus, who was the son of Euthyphron, who was the son of Cleonymus. Cleonymus was an exile from Phlias. According to these authors, Marmacus settled in Samos, which is why Pythagoras was called a Samian. After that, Pythagoras moved to Lesbos and came to Pherecydes with letters of recommendation from his uncle Zoilus. He made three silver goblets and took them to Egypt, one as a gift for each of the three priests. He had brothers, the eldest named Eunomus and the middle one Tyrrhenus. He also had a slave named Zamolxis. According to Herodotus, the Getæ sacrifice to Zamolxis because they believe he is the same as Saturn.¹⁰⁷

II. He was a pupil, as I have already mentioned, of Pherecydes, the Syrian; and after his death he came to Samos, and became a pupil of Hermodamas, the descendant of Creophylus, who was by this time an old man.

II. As I have already mentioned, he was a pupil of Pherecydes, the Syrian. After Pherecydes died, he went to Samos and became a pupil of Hermodamas, a descendant of Creophylus. Hermodamas was an old man by then.

III. And as he was a young man, and devoted to learning, he quitted his country, and got initiated into all the Grecian and barbarian sacred mysteries. Accordingly, he went to Egypt, on which occasion Polycrates gave him a letter of introduction to Amasis; and he learnt the Egyptian language, as Antipho tells us, in his treatise on those men who have been conspicuous for virtue, and he associated with the Chaldæans and with the Magi.

III. As a young man devoted to learning, he left his country and was initiated into all the Greek and barbarian sacred mysteries. He went to Egypt, and Polycrates gave him a letter of introduction to Amasis. He learned the Egyptian language, according to Antipho’s treatise on men known for their virtue. He also associated with the Chaldæans and the Magi.

Afterwards he went to Crete, and in company with Epimenides, he descended into the Idæan cave, (and in Egypt too, he entered into the holiest parts of their temples,) and learned all the most secret mysteries that relate to their Gods. Then he returned back again to Samos, and finding his country reduced under the absolute dominion of Polycrates, he set sail, and fled to Crotona in Italy. And there, having given laws to the Italians, he gained a very high reputation, together with his scholars, who were about three hundred in number, and governed the republic in a most excellent manner; so that the constitution was very nearly an aristocracy.

Afterward, he went to Crete and descended into the Idæan cave with Epimenides. In Egypt, too, he entered the holiest parts of the temples. He learned all the most secret mysteries concerning their gods. Then he returned to Samos and found his country under the absolute rule of Polycrates. So he set sail and fled to Crotona in Italy. There he gave laws to the Italians and gained a very high reputation, along with his roughly three hundred students. He and his students governed the republic extremely well, so that its constitution was nearly an aristocracy.

IV. Heraclides Ponticus says, that he was accustomed to speak of himself in this manner; that he had formerly been Æthalides, and had been accounted the son of Mercury; and that Mercury had desired him to select any gift he pleased except immortality. And that he accordingly had requested that, whether living or dead, he might preserve the memory of what had happened to him. While, therefore, he was alive, he recollected everything; and when he was dead, he retained the same memory. And at a subsequent period he passed into Euphorbus, and was wounded by Menelaus. And while he was Euphorbus, he used to say that he had formerly been Æthalides; and that he had received as a gift from Mercury the perpetual transmigration of his soul, so that it was constantly transmigrating and passing into whatever plants or animals it pleased; and he had also received the gift of knowing and recollecting all that his soul had suffered in hell, and what sufferings too are endured by the rest of the souls.

IV. Heraclides Ponticus says that he used to speak of himself in the following way. He had once been Æthalides and was believed to be the son of Mercury. Mercury had told him to choose any gift he wished, except immortality. So he asked to remember everything that happened to him, whether he was alive or dead. While alive, he remembered everything. When dead, he retained the same memory. Later, his soul passed into Euphorbus, who was wounded by Menelaus. As Euphorbus, he used to say that he had once been Æthalides. He said that Mercury had given him the gift of perpetual transmigration. His soul constantly moved from one body to another, entering whatever plants or animals it chose. He had also been given the ability to know and remember all that his soul had suffered in hell. He could also remember the sufferings endured there by the other souls.

But after Euphorbus died, he said that his soul had passed into Hermotimus; and when he wished to convince people of this, he went into the territory of the Branchidæ, and going into the temple of Apollo, he showed his shield which Menelaus had dedicated there as an offering. For he said that he, when he sailed from Troy, had offered up his shield¹⁰⁸ which was already getting worn out, to Apollo, and that nothing remained but the ivory face which was on it. And when Hermotimus died, then he said that he had become Pyrrhus, a fisherman of Delos; and that he still recollected everything, how he had been formerly Æthalides, then Euphorbus, then Hermotimus, and then Pyrrhus. And when Pyrrhus died, he became Pythagoras, and still recollected all the circumstances that I have been mentioning.

But he said that after Euphorbus died, his soul passed into Hermotimus. To convince people of this, he went into the territory of the Branchidæ. There, in the temple of Apollo, he showed them his shield, which Menelaus had dedicated there as an offering. He said that Menelaus had offered the shield¹⁰⁸ to Apollo when he sailed from Troy. The shield was already getting worn out, and nothing remained of it but its ivory face. He said that when Hermotimus died, he became Pyrrhus, a fisherman of Delos. He still remembered everything, including how he had once been Æthalides, then Euphorbus, then Hermotimus, and then Pyrrhus. When Pyrrhus died, he became Pythagoras and still remembered all the circumstances I have mentioned.

V. Now, some people say that Pythagoras did not leave behind him a single book; but they talk foolishly; for Heraclitus, the natural philosopher, speaks plainly enough of him, saying, “Pythagoras, the son of Mnesarchus, was the most learned of all men in history; and having selected from these writings, he thus formed his own wisdom and extensive learning, and mischievous art.” And he speaks thus, because Pythagoras, in the beginning of his treatise on Natural Philosophy, writes in the following manner: “By the air which I breathe, and by the water which I drink, I will not endure to be blamed on account of this discourse.”

V. Some people say that Pythagoras left no books behind. But they are talking nonsense. Heraclitus, the natural philosopher, speaks plainly enough about him: “Pythagoras, the son of Mnesarchus, was the most learned of all men in history. He selected from these writings and formed his own wisdom, extensive learning, and mischievous art.” Heraclitus says this because Pythagoras begins his treatise on Natural Philosophy with these words: “By the air I breathe and the water I drink, I will not tolerate being blamed for this discourse.”

And there are three volumes extant written by Pythagoras. One on Education; one on Politics; and one on Natural Philosophy. But the treatise which is now extant under the name of Pythagoras is the work of Lysis, of Tarentum, a philosopher of the Pythagorean School, who fled to Thebes, and became the master of Epaminondas. And Heraclides, the son of Sarapion, in his Abridgment of Sotion, says that he wrote a poem in epic verse on the Universe; and besides that a sacred poem, which begins thus;—

Three volumes written by Pythagoras survive: one on Education, one on Politics, and one on Natural Philosophy. But the treatise that now survives under Pythagoras's name is the work of Lysis of Tarentum. Lysis was a philosopher of the Pythagorean School who fled to Thebes and became the teacher of Epaminondas. Heraclides, the son of Sarapion, says in his Abridgment of Sotion that Pythagoras wrote an epic poem on the Universe. He also wrote a sacred poem, which begins:

A third about the Soul; a fourth on Piety; a fifth entitled Helothales, which was the name of the father of Epicharmus, of Cos; a sixth called Crotona, and other poems too. But the mystic discourse which is extant under his name, they say is really the work of Hippasus, having been composed with a view to bring Pythagoras into disrepute. There were also many other books composed by Aston, of Crotona, and attributed to Pythagoras.

A third was about the Soul, and a fourth was about Piety. A fifth was titled Helothales, after the father of Epicharmus of Cos. A sixth was called Crotona, and there were other poems too. But they say that the surviving mystical discourse attributed to Pythagoras was really written by Hippasus to discredit him. Aston of Crotona also wrote many other books that were attributed to Pythagoras.

Aristoxenus asserts that Pythagoras derived the greater part of his ethical doctrines from Themistoclea, the priestess at Delphi. And Ion, of Chios, in his Victories, says that he wrote some poems and attributed them to Orpheus. They also say that the poem called the Scopiadæ is by him, which begins thus:—

Aristoxenus says that Pythagoras drew most of his ethical teachings from Themistoclea, the priestess at Delphi. Ion of Chios says in his Victories that Pythagoras wrote some poems and attributed them to Orpheus. They also say that Pythagoras wrote the poem called the Scopiadæ, which begins:

VI. And Sosicrates, in his Successions, relates that he, having being asked by Leon, the tyrant of the Phliasians, who he was, replied, “A philosopher.” And adds, that he used to compare life to a festival. “And as some people came to a festival to contend for the prizes, and others for the purposes of traffic, and the best as spectators; so also in life, the men of slavish dispositions,” said he, “are born hunters after glory and covetousness, but philosophers are seekers after truth.” And thus he spoke on this subject. But in the three treatises above mentioned, the following principles are laid down by Pythagoras generally.

VI. In his Successions, Sosicrates relates that Leon, the tyrant of the Phliasians, asked him who he was. He replied, “A philosopher.” Sosicrates adds that he used to compare life to a festival. “Some people come to a festival to compete for prizes, others to trade, and the best to watch. In the same way, people with slavish dispositions are born to pursue glory and wealth. But philosophers seek truth.” That is what he said on the subject. But in the three treatises mentioned above, Pythagoras generally sets out the following principles.

He forbids men to pray for anything in particular for themselves, because they do not know what is good for them. He calls drunkenness an expression identical with ruin, and rejects all superfluity, saying, “That no one ought to exceed the proper quantity of meat and drink.” And on the subject of venereal pleasures, he speaks thus:—“One ought to sacrifice to Venus in the winter, not in the summer; and in autumn and spring in a lesser degree. But the practice is pernicious at every season, and is never good for the health.” And once, when he was asked when a man might indulge in the pleasures of love, he replied, “Whenever you wish to be weaker than yourself.”

He forbids men to pray for anything specific for themselves because they do not know what is good for them. He says that drunkenness is another word for ruin, and he rejects all excess. He says, “No one should eat or drink more than the proper amount.” On sexual pleasure, he says: “One should sacrifice to Venus in winter, not in summer, and less often in autumn and spring. But the practice is harmful in every season and is never good for health.” Once, when asked when a man might enjoy the pleasures of love, he replied, “Whenever you wish to be weaker than yourself.”

VII. And he divides the life of man thus. A boy for twenty years; a young man (νεάνισκος) for twenty years; a middle-aged man (νεανίας) for twenty years; an old man for twenty years. And these different ages correspond proportionably to the seasons: boyhood answers to spring; youth to summer; middle age to autumn; and old age to winter. And he uses νεάνισκος here as equivalent to μειράκιον, and νεανίας as equivalent to ἀνὴρ.

VII. He divides a man’s life into four stages. He is a boy for twenty years, a young man (νεάνισκος) for twenty years, a middle-aged man (νεανίας) for twenty years, and an old man for twenty years. These stages correspond to the seasons. Boyhood corresponds to spring, youth to summer, middle age to autumn, and old age to winter. Here he uses νεάνισκος as equivalent to μειράκιον, and νεανίας as equivalent to ἀνὴρ.

VIII. He was the first person, as Timæus says, who asserted that the property of friends is common, and that friendship is equality. And his disciples used to put all their possessions together into one store, and use them in common; and for five years they kept silence, doing nothing but listen to discourses, and never once seeing Pythagoras, until they were approved; after that time they were admitted into his house, and allowed to see him. They also abstained from the use of cypress coffins, because the sceptre of Jupiter was made of that wood, as Hermippus tells us in the second book of his account of Pythagoras.

VIII. According to Timæus, he was the first to say that friends share their property and that friendship is equality. His disciples pooled all their possessions and shared them. For five years, they remained silent and did nothing but listen to lectures. They never saw Pythagoras during that time, until they were approved. Afterward, they were allowed into his house and permitted to see him. They also avoided using cypress coffins because Jupiter’s scepter was made of that wood. Hermippus tells us this in the second book of his account of Pythagoras.

IX. He is said to have been a man of the most dignified appearance, and his disciples adopted an opinion respecting him, that he was Apollo who had come from the Hyperboreans; and it is said, that once when he was stripped naked, he was seen to have a golden thigh. And there were many people who affirmed, that when he was crossing the river Nessus it addressed him by his name.

IX. He is said to have had a very dignified appearance. His disciples believed that he was Apollo, who had come from the Hyperboreans. It is said that once, when he was naked, he was seen to have a golden thigh. Many people also claimed that the river Nessus called him by name as he was crossing it.

X. Timæus, in the tenth book of his Histories, tells us, that he used to say that women who were married to men had the names of the Gods, being successively called virgins, then nymphs, and subsequently mothers.

X. In the tenth book of his Histories, Timæus tells us that he used to say married women had the names of the Gods. They were called virgins first, then nymphs, and finally mothers.

XI. It was Pythagoras also who carried geometry to perfection, after Mœris had first found out the principles of the elements of that science, as Aristiclides tells us in the second book of his History of Alexander; and the part of the science to which Pythagoras applied himself above all others was arithmetic. He also discovered the numerical relation of sounds on a single string: he also studied medicine. And Apollodorus, the logician, records of him, that he sacrificed a hecatomb, when he had discovered that the square of the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the squares of the sides containing the right angle. And there is an epigram which is couched in the following terms:—

XI. Pythagoras also brought geometry to perfection, after Mœris had first discovered the principles of the subject. Aristiclides tells us this in the second book of his History of Alexander. Pythagoras devoted himself to arithmetic above all other parts of the subject. He also discovered the numerical relationship between sounds produced by a single string. He studied medicine as well. Apollodorus, the logician, records that Pythagoras sacrificed a hecatomb after making a discovery about right triangles. He discovered that the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the two sides forming the right angle. An epigram puts it as follows:

XII. He is also said to have been the first man who trained athletes on meat; and Eurymenes was the first man, according to the statement of Phavorinus, in the third book of his Commentaries, who ever did submit to this diet, as before that time men used to train themselves on dry figs and moist cheese, and wheaten bread; as the same Phavorinus informs us in the eighth book of his Universal History. But some authors state, that a trainer of the name of Pythagoras certainly did train his athletes on this system, but that it was not our philosopher; for that he even forbade men to kill animals at all, much less would have allowed his disciples to eat them, as having a right to live in common with mankind. And this was his pretext; but in reality he prohibited the eating of animals, because he wished to train and accustom men to simplicity of life, so that all their food should be easily procurable, as it would be, if they ate only such things as required no fire to dress them, and if they drank plain water; for from this diet they would derive health of body and acuteness of intellect.

XII. He is also said to have been the first to train athletes on a diet of meat. According to Phavorinus, Eurymenes was the first athlete to follow this diet. Phavorinus makes this claim in the third book of his Commentaries. Before then, athletes trained on dried figs, fresh cheese, and wheat bread. Phavorinus tells us this in the eighth book of his Universal History. But some authors say that a trainer named Pythagoras did train his athletes on meat, though he was not our philosopher. Our philosopher even forbade people to kill animals at all. Much less would he have allowed his followers to eat them, since animals had a right to live alongside humans. This was his stated reason. In reality, though, he forbade eating animals because he wanted to train people to live simply. He wanted them to get used to eating food that was easy to obtain. It would be easy to obtain if they ate only foods that required no cooking and drank plain water. For this diet would give them healthy bodies and sharp minds.

The only altar at which he worshipped was that of Apollo the Father, at Delos, which is at the back of the altar of Ceratinus, because wheat, and barley, and cheese-cakes are the only offerings laid upon it, being not dressed by fire; and no victim is ever slain there, as Aristotle tells us in his Constitution of the Delians. They say, too, that he was the first person who asserted that the soul went a necessary circle being changed about and confined at different times in different bodies.

The only altar where he worshipped was the altar of Apollo the Father at Delos, behind the altar of Ceratinus. He worshipped there because only wheat, barley, and cheesecakes were offered on it, none of them cooked by fire. No animal was ever sacrificed there, as Aristotle tells us in his Constitution of the Delians. They also say he was the first to claim that the soul necessarily moves in a cycle, passing into and being confined in different bodies at different times.

XIII. He was also the first person who introduced measures and weights among the Greeks; as Aristoxenus the musician informs us.

XIII. He was also the first to introduce weights and measures to the Greeks, according to Aristoxenus the musician.

XIV. Parmenides, too, assures us, that he was the first person who asserted the identity of Hesperus and Lucifer.

XIV. Parmenides also assures us that he was the first to say that Hesperus and Lucifer are the same.

XV. And he was so greatly admired, that they used to say that his friends looked on all his sayings as the oracles of God.¹⁰⁹ And he himself says in his writings, that he had come among men after having spent two hundred and seven years in the shades below. Therefore the Lucanians and the Peucetians, and the Messapians, and the Romans, flocked around him, coming with eagerness to hear his discourses; but until the time of Philolaus there were no doctrines of Pythagoras ever divulged; and he was the first person who published the three celebrated books which Plato wrote to have purchased for him for a hundred minæ. Nor were the number of his scholars who used to come to him by night fewer than six hundred. And if any of them had ever been permitted to see him, they wrote of it to their friends, as if they had gained some great advantage.

XV. He was so greatly admired that people said his friends regarded all his sayings as the words of God.¹⁰⁹ He himself wrote that he had come among men after spending two hundred and seven years in the world below. So the Lucanians, the Peucetians, the Messapians, and the Romans flocked to him, eager to hear him speak. But none of Pythagoras’s teachings were made public until the time of Philolaus. Philolaus was the first to publish the three celebrated books that Plato wrote to have bought for him for a hundred minæ. No fewer than six hundred of his students used to come to him at night. If any of them were allowed to see him, they wrote to their friends about it, as if they had gained some great benefit.

The people of Metapontum used to call his house the temple of Ceres; and the street leading to it they called the street of the Muses, as we are told by Phavorinus in his Universal History.

The people of Metapontum called his house the temple of Ceres. They called the street leading to it the street of the Muses, according to Phavorinus in his Universal History.

And the rest of the Pythagoreans used to say, according to the account given by Aristoxenus, in the tenth book of his Laws on Education, that his precepts ought not to be divulged to all the world; and Xenophilus, the Pythagorean, when he was asked what was the best way for a man to educate his son, said, “That he must first of all take care that he was born in a city which enjoyed good laws.”

According to Aristoxenus, the other Pythagoreans said that his teachings should not be shared with everyone. Aristoxenus gives this account in the tenth book of his Laws on Education. Xenophilus the Pythagorean was asked how a man could best educate his son. He replied, “First of all, he must make sure his son is born in a city with good laws.”

Pythagoras, too, formed many excellent men in Italy, by his precepts, and among them Zaleucus,¹¹⁰ and Charondas,¹¹¹ the lawgivers.

Pythagoras also trained many excellent men in Italy through his teachings. Among them were the lawgivers Zaleucus¹¹⁰ and Charondas¹¹¹.

XVI. For he was very eminent for his power of attracting friendships; and among other things, if ever he heard that any one had any community of symbols with him, he at once made him a companion and a friend.

XVI. He was especially good at attracting friends. For example, whenever he heard that someone shared any symbols with him, he immediately made that person a companion and friend.

XVII. Now, what he called his symbols were such as these. “Do not stir the fire with a sword.” “Do not sit down on a bushel.” “Do not devour your heart.” “Do not aid men in discarding a burden, but in increasing one.” “Always have your bed packed up.” “Do not bear the image of a God on a ring.” “Efface the traces of a pot in the ashes.” “Do not wipe a seat with a lamp.” “Do not make water in the sunshine.” “Do not walk in the main street.” “Do not offer your right hand lightly.” “Do not cherish swallows under your roof.” “Do not cherish birds with crooked talons.” “Do not defile; and do not stand upon the parings of your nails, or the cuttings of your hair.” “Avoid a sharp sword.” “When you are travelling abroad, look not back at your own borders.” Now the precept not to stir fire with a sword meant, not to provoke the anger or swelling pride of powerful men; not to violate the beam of the balance meant, not to transgress fairness and justice; not to sit on a bushel is to have an equal care for the present and for the future, for by the bushel is meant one’s daily food. By not devouring one’s heart, he intended to show that we ought not to waste away our souls with grief and sorrow. In the precept that a man when travelling abroad should not turn his eyes back, he recommended those who were departing from life not to be desirous to live, and not to be too much attracted by the pleasures here on earth. And the other symbols may be explained in a similar manner, that we may not be too prolix here.

XVII. What he called his symbols included the following: “Do not stir the fire with a sword.” “Do not sit on a bushel.” “Do not devour your heart.” “Do not help men lay down a burden, but help them add to it.” “Always have your bed packed up.” “Do not wear the image of a God on a ring.” “Erase the traces of a pot in the ashes.” “Do not wipe a seat with a lamp.” “Do not urinate in the sunshine.” “Do not walk in the main street.” “Do not offer your right hand lightly.” “Do not shelter swallows under your roof.” “Do not keep birds with crooked talons.” “Do not defile, and do not stand on your nail clippings or cut hair.” “Avoid a sharp sword.” “When traveling abroad, do not look back at your own borders.” The instruction not to stir a fire with a sword meant not to provoke powerful men’s anger or excessive pride. Not to disturb the beam of a balance meant not to violate fairness and justice. Not to sit on a bushel meant to care equally for the present and the future. The bushel stands for one’s daily food. By not devouring one’s heart, he meant that we should not let grief and sorrow wear away our souls. By telling travelers abroad not to look back, he advised those leaving life not to long to live. Nor should they be too drawn to the pleasures of this world. The other symbols may be explained in a similar way, but we need not go on too long here.

XVIII. And above all things, he used to prohibit the eating of the erythinus, and the melanurus; and also, he enjoined his disciples to abstain from the hearts of animals, and from beans. And Aristotle informs us, that he sometimes used also to add to these prohibitions paunches and mullet. And some authors assert that he himself used to be contented with honey and honeycomb, and bread, and that he never drank wine in the day time. And his desert was usually vegetables, either boiled or raw; and he very rarely ate fish. His dress was white, very clean, and his bed-clothes were also white, and woollen, for linen had not yet been introduced into that country. He was never known to have eaten too much, or to have drunk too much, or to indulge in the pleasures of love. He abstained wholly from laughter, and from all such indulgences as jests and idle stories. And when he was angry, he never chastised any one, whether slave or freeman. He used to call admonishing, feeding storks.

XVIII. Above all, he forbade eating the erythinus and the melanurus. He also told his disciples not to eat animal hearts or beans. Aristotle tells us that he sometimes added paunches and mullet to these prohibitions. Some authors say that he himself was content with honey, honeycomb, and bread, and never drank wine during the day. His dessert was usually vegetables, either boiled or raw. He very rarely ate fish. His clothes were white and very clean. His bedding was also white and made of wool, because linen had not yet been introduced into that country. He was never known to eat or drink too much or to indulge in sexual pleasures. He never laughed or indulged in jokes or idle stories. When he was angry, he never punished anyone, whether slave or free. He called giving advice “feeding storks.”

He used to practise divination, as far as auguries and auspices go, but not by means of burnt offerings, except only the burning of frankincense. And all the sacrifices which he offered consisted of inanimate things. But some, however, assert that he did sacrifice animals, limiting himself to cocks, and sucking kids, which are called ἁπάλιοι, but that he very rarely offered lambs. Aristoxenus, however, affirms that he permitted the eating of all other animals, and only abstained from oxen used in agriculture, and from rams.

He practiced divination by interpreting signs and omens, but he did not burn offerings except for frankincense. All the sacrifices he offered were of nonliving things. Some, however, say that he did sacrifice animals, limiting himself to roosters and young goats still nursing, called ἁπάλιοι. They say he very rarely offered lambs. Aristoxenus, however, says that he allowed people to eat all other animals. He abstained only from oxen used for farming and from rams.

XIX. The same author tells us, as I have already mentioned, that he received his doctrines from Themistoclea, at Delphi. And Hieronymus says, that when he descended to the shades below, he saw the soul of Hesiod bound to a brazen pillar, and gnashing its teeth; and that of Homer suspended from a tree, and snakes around it, as a punishment for the things that they had said of the Gods. And that those people also were punished who refrained from commerce with their wives; and that on account of this he was greatly honoured by the people of Crotona.

XIX. As I have already mentioned, the same author tells us that he learned his doctrines from Themistoclea at Delphi. Hieronymus says that he descended to the underworld and saw the soul of Hesiod bound to a bronze pillar, gnashing its teeth. He also saw the soul of Homer hanging from a tree, with snakes around it. They were punished for what they had said about the gods. He also saw that those who abstained from sex with their wives were punished. For this reason, he was greatly honored by the people of Crotona.

But Aristippus, of Cyrene, in his Account of Natural Philosophers, says that Pythagoras derived his name from the fact of his speaking (ἀγορεύειν) truth no less than the God at Delphi (τοῦ πυθίου).

But Aristippus of Cyrene gives another explanation in his Account of Natural Philosophers. He says Pythagoras got his name because he spoke (ἀγορεύειν) the truth as much as the God at Delphi (τοῦ πυθίου).

It is said that he used to admonish his disciples to repeat these lines to themselves whenever they returned home to their houses:—

It is said that he urged his disciples to repeat these lines to themselves whenever they returned home:

And that he used to forbid them to offer victims to the Gods, ordering them to worship only at those altars which were unstained with blood. He forbade them also to swear by the Gods; saying, “That every man ought so to exercise himself, as to be worthy of belief without an oath.” He also taught men that it behoved them to honour their elders, thinking that which was precedent in point of time more honourable; just as in the world, the rising of the sun was more so than the setting; in life, the beginning more so than the end; and in animals, production more so than destruction.

He used to forbid them to sacrifice animals to the Gods. He ordered them to worship only at altars unstained by blood. He also forbade them to swear by the Gods, saying, “Every man should train himself to be believed without an oath.” He also taught people to honor their elders, believing that what came earlier was more honorable. Just as sunrise was more honorable than sunset, the beginning of life was more honorable than its end. And among animals, birth was more honorable than destruction.

Another of his rules was that men should honour the Gods above the dæmones, heroes above men; and of all men parents were entitled to the highest degree of reverence. Another, that people should associate with one another in such a way as not to make their friends enemies, but to render their enemies friends. Another was that they should think nothing exclusively their own. Another was to assist the law, and to make war upon lawlessness. Not to destroy or injure a cultivated tree, nor any animal either which does not injure men. That modesty and decorum consisted in never yielding to laughter, and yet not looking stern. He taught that men should avoid too much flesh, that they should in travelling let rest and exertion alternate; that they should exercise memory; that they should never say or do anything in anger; that they should not pay respect to every kind of divination; that they should use songs set to the lyre; and by hymns to the Gods and to eminent men, display a reasonable gratitude to them.

Another of his rules was that people should honor the Gods above the dæmones, and heroes above men. Among all people, parents deserved the greatest reverence. People should treat one another so that they do not turn friends into enemies, but enemies into friends. They should regard nothing as exclusively their own. They should support the law and fight lawlessness. They should not destroy or damage a cultivated tree, or any animal that does not harm people. Modesty and proper conduct meant never giving in to laughter, but not looking stern either. He taught that people should avoid eating too much meat. When traveling, they should alternate between rest and exertion. They should exercise their memory and never say or do anything in anger. They should not trust every kind of divination. They should sing songs accompanied by the lyre. Through hymns to the Gods and to eminent men, they should show them a reasonable measure of gratitude.

He also forbade his disciples to eat beans, because, as they were flatulent, they greatly partook of animal properties [he also said that men kept their stomachs in better order by avoiding them]; and that such abstinence made the visions which appear in one’s sleep gentle and free from agitation. Alexander also says, in his Successions of Philosophers, that he found the following dogmas also set down in the Commentaries of Pythagoras:—

He also forbade his disciples to eat beans because they caused gas and therefore had many animal properties. [He also said that people kept their stomachs in better order by avoiding beans.] He said that avoiding beans also made dreams gentle and free from agitation. Alexander also says in his Successions of Philosophers that he found the following teachings in the Commentaries of Pythagoras:

That the monad was the beginning of everything. From the monad proceeds an indefinite duad, which is subordinate to the monad as to its cause. That from the monad and the indefinite duad proceed numbers. And from numbers signs. And from these last, lines of which plane figures consist. And from plane figures are derived solid bodies. And from solid bodies sensible bodies, of which last there are four elements; fire, water, earth, and air. And that the world, which is endued with life, and intellect, and which is of a spherical figure, having the earth, which is also spherical, and inhabited all over in its centre, results from a combination of these elements, and derives its motion from them; and also that there are antipodes,¹¹² and that what is below, as respects us, is above in respect of them.

The monad was the beginning of everything. From the monad comes an indefinite duad, which is subordinate to the monad as its cause. From the monad and the indefinite duad come numbers, and from numbers come signs. From signs come lines, which make up plane figures. From plane figures come solid bodies, and from solid bodies come bodies that can be perceived by the senses. These bodies have four elements: fire, water, earth, and air. The world results from a combination of these elements and gets its motion from them. It is alive, has intelligence, and is spherical. At its center is the earth, which is also spherical and is inhabited all over. There are also antipodes,¹¹² and what is below for us is above for them.

He also taught that light and darkness and cold and heat, and dryness and moisture, were equally divided in the world; and that, while heat was predominant it was summer; while cold had the mastery it was winter; when dryness prevailed it was spring; and when moisture preponderated, winter. And while all these qualities were on a level, then was the loveliest season of the year; of which the flourishing spring was the wholesome period, and the season of autumn the most pernicious one. Of the day, he said that the flourishing period was the morning, and the fading one the evening; on which account that also was the least healthy time.

He also taught that light and darkness, cold and heat, and dryness and moisture were equally distributed in the world. When heat prevailed, it was summer. When cold prevailed, it was winter. When dryness prevailed, it was spring. When moisture prevailed, it was winter. When all these qualities were in balance, the year was at its loveliest. Blooming spring was the healthiest period, and autumn was the most harmful. He said that morning was the flourishing part of the day, and evening was the fading part. For that reason, evening was also the least healthy time of day.

Another of his theories was, that the air around the earth was immoveable, and pregnant with disease, and that everything in it was mortal; but that the upper air was in perpetual motion, and pure and salubrious; and that everything in that was immortal, and on that account divine. And that the sun, and the moon, and the stars, were all Gods; for in them the warm principle predominates which is the cause of life. And that the moon derives its light from the sun. And that there is a relationship between men and the Gods, because men partake of the divine principle; on which account also, God exercises his providence for our advantage. Also, that fate is the cause of the arrangement of the world both generally and particularly. Moreover, that a ray from the sun penetrated both the cold æther and the dense æther; and they call the air (ἀὴρ), the cold æther (ψυχρὸν αἰθέρα), and the sea and moisture they call the dense æther (παχὺν αἰθέρα). And this ray descends into the depths, and in this way vivifies everything. And everything which partakes of the principle of heat lives, on which account also plants are animated beings; but that all living things have not necessarily souls. And that the soul is a something torn off from the æther, both warm and cold, from its partaking of the cold æther. And that the soul is something different from life. Also, that it is immortal, because that from which it has been detached is immortal.

Another of his theories was that the air around the earth was still and filled with disease. Everything in that air was mortal. But the upper air was always moving, and it was pure and healthy. Everything in the upper air was immortal and therefore divine. The sun, moon, and stars were all gods, because warmth predominated in them, and warmth was the cause of life. The moon received its light from the sun. People and the gods were related because people shared in the divine principle. For that reason, God also watched over people for their benefit. Fate was the cause of the arrangement of the world, both as a whole and in every detail. A ray from the sun penetrated both the cold ether and the dense ether. They called the air (ἀὴρ) the cold ether (ψυχρὸν αἰθέρα). They called the sea and moisture the dense ether (παχὺν αἰθέρα). The ray descended into the depths and gave life to everything in this way. Everything that shared in the principle of heat was alive. For this reason, plants too were living beings. But not all living things necessarily had souls. The soul was something torn off from the ether, both warm and cold, because it shared in the cold ether. The soul was different from life. It was also immortal, because the ether from which it had been detached was immortal.

Also, that animals are born from one another by seeds, and that it is impossible for there to be any spontaneous production by the earth. And that seed is a drop from the brain which contains in itself a warm vapour; and that when this is applied to the womb, it transmits virtue, and moisture, and blood from the brain, from which flesh, and sinews, and bones, and hair, and the whole body are produced. And from the vapour is produced the soul, and also sensation. And that the infant first becomes a solid body at the end of forty days; but, according to the principles of harmony, it is not perfect till seven, or perhaps nine, or at most ten months, and then it is brought forth. And that it contains in itself all the principles of life, which are all connected together, and by their union and combination form a harmonious whole, each of them developing itself at the appointed time.

Animals are also born from one another through seed. It is impossible for the earth to produce them spontaneously. Seed is a drop from the brain that contains a warm vapor. When the seed enters the womb, it transmits vital power, moisture, and blood from the brain. From these, flesh, sinews, bones, hair, and the whole body are formed. The soul and sensation come from the vapor. The infant first becomes a solid body after forty days. But according to the principles of harmony, it is not fully formed until seven, perhaps nine, or at most ten months have passed. Then it is born. It contains all the principles of life, which are connected. Their union and combination form a harmonious whole, with each principle developing at its appointed time.

The senses in general, and especially the sight, are a vapour of excessive warmth, and on this account a man is said to see through air, and through water. For the hot principle is opposed by the cold one; since, if the vapour in the eyes were cold, it would have the same temperature as the air, and so would be dissipated. As it is, in some passages he calls the eyes the gates of the sun. And he speaks in a similar manner of hearing, and of the other senses.

The senses in general, and sight in particular, are an extremely warm vapor. For this reason, a person is said to see through air and water. The hot principle is opposed by the cold principle. If the vapor in the eyes were cold, it would be the same temperature as the air and would disperse. As it is, he calls the eyes the gates of the sun in some passages. He speaks similarly of hearing and the other senses.

He also says that the soul of man is divided into three parts; into intuition (νοῦς), and reason (φρὴν), and mind (θυμὸς), and that the first and last divisions are found also in other animals, but that the middle one, reason, is only found in man. And that the chief abode of the soul is in those parts of the body which are between the heart and the brain. And that that portion of it which is in the heart is the mind (θυμὸς); but that deliberation (νοὺς), and reason (φρὴν), reside in the brain.¹¹³

He also says that the human soul has three parts: intuition (νοῦς), reason (φρὴν), and mind (θυμὸς). Other animals also have intuition and mind, but only humans have reason. The soul’s main home is in the parts of the body between the heart and the brain. The part in the heart is the mind (θυμὸς), while deliberation (νοὺς) and reason (φρὴν) reside in the brain.¹¹³

Moreover, that the senses are drops from them; and that the reasoning sense is immortal, but the others are mortal. And that the soul is nourished by the blood; and that reasons are the winds of the soul. That it is invisible, and so are its reasons, since the æther itself is invisible. That the links of the soul are the veins, and the arteries, and the nerves. But that when it is vigorous, and is by itself in a quiescent state, then its links are words and actions. That when it is cast forth upon the earth it wanders about, resembling the body. Moreover, that Mercury is the steward of the souls, and that on this account he has the name of Conductor, and Commercial, and Infernal, since it is he who conducts the souls from their bodies, and from earth, and sea; and that he conducts the pure souls to the highest region, and that he does not allow the impure ones to approach them, nor to come near one another; but commits them to be bound in indissoluble fetters by the Furies. The Pythagoreans also assert, that the whole air is full of souls, and that these are those which are accounted dæmones, and heroes. Also, that it is by them that dreams are sent among men, and also the tokens of disease and health; these last too, being sent not only to men, but to sheep also, and other cattle. Also, that it is they who are concerned with purifications, and expiations, and all kinds of divination, and oracular predictions, and things of that kind.

They also say that the senses are drops from them. The reasoning sense is immortal, but the other senses are mortal. The soul is nourished by blood, and thoughts are the winds of the soul. The soul and its thoughts are invisible, because the ether itself is invisible. The soul is bound by the veins, arteries, and nerves. But when the soul is vigorous and at rest by itself, its bonds are words and actions. When the soul is cast onto the earth, it wanders about, resembling the body. They also say that Mercury is the steward of souls. For this reason, he is called Conductor, Commercial, and Infernal. He leads souls from their bodies, from the earth, and from the sea. He leads pure souls to the highest region. He does not allow impure souls to approach the pure ones or one another. Instead, he hands them over to the Furies, who bind them with unbreakable fetters. The Pythagoreans also say that the whole air is full of souls. These are the beings considered dæmones and heroes. They send dreams to people, along with signs of disease and health. They send these signs not only to people, but also to sheep and other cattle. They are also concerned with purifications, atonements, all kinds of divination, oracular predictions, and similar things.

They also say, that the most important privilege in man is, the being able to persuade his soul to either good or bad. And that men are happy when they have a good soul; yet, that they are never quiet, and that they never retain the same mind long. Also, that an oath is justice; and that on that account, Jupiter is called Jupiter of Oaths (Ὅρκιος). Also, that virtue is harmony, and health, and universal good, and God; on which account everything owes its existence and consistency to harmony. Also, that friendship is a harmonious equality.

They also say that the most important human privilege is the ability to persuade the soul toward good or evil. People are happy when they have a good soul, yet they are never at peace and never stay of the same mind for long. They also say that an oath is justice, and for this reason Jupiter is called Jupiter of Oaths (Ὅρκιος). Virtue is harmony, health, universal good, and God. For this reason, everything owes its existence and coherence to harmony. Friendship is a harmonious equality.

Again, they teach that one ought not to pay equal honours to Gods and to heroes; but that one ought to honour the Gods at all times, extolling them with praises, clothed in white garments, and keeping one’s body chaste; but that one ought not to pay such honour to the heroes till after midday. Also, that a state of purity is brought about by purifications, and washings, and sprinklings, and by a man’s purifying himself from all funerals, or concubinage, or pollution of every kind, and by abstaining from all flesh that has either been killed or died of itself, and from mullets, and from melanuri, and from eggs, and from such animals as lay eggs, and from beans, and from other things which are prohibited by those who have the charge of the mysteries in the temples.

They also teach that gods and heroes should not be honored equally. People should honor the gods at all times, praising them, wearing white clothes, and keeping their bodies chaste. But they should not honor heroes in this way until after midday. They also teach that purity is achieved through purification rites, washing, and sprinkling. A person must purify himself after funerals, concubinage, or any kind of defilement. He must also abstain from all meat, whether the animal was killed or died naturally. He must abstain from mullets, melanuri, eggs, animals that lay eggs, and beans. He must also avoid other things forbidden by those in charge of the mysteries in the temples.

And Aristotle says, in his treatise on Beans, that Pythagoras enjoined his disciples to abstain from beans, either because they resemble some part of the human body, or because they are like the gates of hell (for they are the only plants without parts); or because they dry up other plants, or because they are representatives of universal nature, or because they are used in elections in oligarchical governments. He also forbade his disciples to pick up what fell from the table, for the sake of accustoming them not to eat immoderately, or else because such things belong to the dead.

In his treatise on Beans, Aristotle says that Pythagoras ordered his disciples not to eat beans. He may have done this because beans resemble a part of the human body, or because they resemble the gates of hell. (Beans are the only plants without parts.) Or perhaps he did so because beans dry up other plants, because they represent universal nature, or because they are used in elections under oligarchical governments. He also forbade his disciples to pick up food that fell from the table. He did this either to teach them not to eat too much, or because such things belong to the dead.

But Aristophanes says, that what falls belongs to the heroes; saying, in his Heroes:—

But Aristophanes says in his Heroes that what falls belongs to the heroes:

He also forbade his disciples to eat white poultry, because a cock of that colour was sacred to Month, and was also a suppliant. He was also accounted a good animal;¹¹⁴ and he was sacred to the God Month, for he indicates the time.

He also forbade his disciples to eat white poultry because a white cock was sacred to Month and was also a suppliant. The cock was also considered a good animal.¹¹⁴ It was sacred to the God Month because it indicates the time.

The Pythagoreans were also forbidden to eat of all fish that were sacred; on the ground that the same animals ought not to be served up before both Gods and men, just as the same things do not belong to freemen and to slaves. Now, white is an indication of a good nature, and black of a bad one. Another of the precepts of Pythagoras was, that men ought not to break bread; because in ancient times friends used to assemble around one loaf, as they even now do among the barbarians. Nor would he allow men to divide bread which unites them. Some think that he laid down this rule in reference to the judgment which takes place in hell; some because this practice engenders timidity in war. According to others, what is alluded to is the Union, which presides over the government of the universe.

The Pythagoreans were also forbidden to eat any fish that were sacred. The reason was that the same animals should not be served to both gods and men. Likewise, the same things do not belong to both free people and slaves. White is a sign of a good nature, and black of a bad one. Another of Pythagoras's rules was that people should not break bread. In ancient times, friends used to gather around one loaf, as they still do among the barbarians. He would not allow people to divide the bread that unites them. Some think he made this rule because of the judgment that takes place in hell. Others think he made it because breaking bread causes cowardice in war. Still others think the rule refers to the Union that governs the universe.

Another of his doctrines was, that of all solid figures the sphere was the most beautiful; and of all plane figures, the circle. That old age and all diminution were similar, and also increase and youth were identical. That health was the permanence of form, and disease the destruction of it. Of salt his opinion was, that it ought to be set before people as a reminder of justice; for salt preserves everything which it touches, and it is composed of the purest particles of water and sea.

Another of his teachings was that the sphere was the most beautiful of all solid shapes, and the circle the most beautiful of all flat shapes. He taught that old age and all decline were similar, and that growth and youth were identical. Health was the preservation of form, while disease was its destruction. He believed salt should be placed before people as a reminder of justice. Salt preserves everything it touches, and it is made of the purest particles of water and sea.

These are the doctrines which Alexander asserts that he discovered in the Pythagorean treatises; and Aristotle gives a similar account of them.

These are the doctrines Alexander says he found in the Pythagorean treatises. Aristotle gives a similar account of them.

XV. Timon, in his Silli, has not left unnoticed the dignified appearance of Pythagoras, when he attacks him on other points. And his words are these:—

XV. In his Silli, Timon attacks Pythagoras on other points but does not overlook his dignified appearance. His words are:

And respecting his having been different people at different times, Xenophanes adds his evidence in an elegiac poem which commences thus:—

Xenophanes also offers evidence that he had been different people at different times, in an elegiac poem that begins:

And the passage in which he mentions Pythagoras is as follows:—

And the passage where he mentions Pythagoras is as follows:

These are the words of Xenophanes.

These are Xenophanes' words.

Cratinus also ridiculed him in his Pythagorean Woman; but in his Tarentines, he speaks thus:—

Cratinus also mocked him in his Pythagorean Woman. But in his Tarentines, he says:

And Mnesimachus says in his Alcmæon:—

And Mnesimachus says in his Alcmæon:

Aristophon says in his Pythagorean:—

Aristophon says in his Pythagorean:

And again, in the same play he says:—

And again, in the same play, he says:

XXI. Pythagoras died in this manner. When he was sitting with some of his companions in Milo’s house, some one of those whom he did not think worthy of admission into it, was excited by envy to set fire to it. But some say that the people of Crotona themselves did this, being afraid lest he might aspire to the tyranny. And that Pythagoras was caught as he was trying to escape; and coming to a place full of beans, he stopped there, saying that it was better to be caught than to trample on the beans, and better to be slain than to speak; and so he was murdered by those who were pursuing him. And in this way, also, most of his companions were slain; being in number about forty; but that a very few did escape, among whom were Archippus, of Tarentum, and Lysis, whom I have mentioned before.

XXI. Pythagoras died in the following way. He was sitting with some companions in Milo’s house. Someone he had considered unworthy of admission to the house grew envious and set it on fire. But some say the people of Crotona themselves set the fire because they feared he might seek to become a tyrant. They say Pythagoras was caught while trying to escape. When he came to a field of beans, he stopped. He said it was better to be caught than to trample the beans, and better to be killed than to speak. So his pursuers murdered him. Most of his companions, about forty in number, were also killed in this way. But a very few escaped, including Archippus of Tarentum and Lysis, whom I mentioned earlier.

But Dicæarchus relates that Pythagoras died afterwards, having escaped as far as the temple of the Muses, at Metapontum, and that he died there of starvation, having abstained from food for forty days. And Heraclides says, in his abridgment of the life of Satyrus, that after he had buried Pherecydes in Delos, he returned to Italy, and finding there a superb banquet prepared at the house of Milo, of Crotona, he left Crotona, and went to Metapontum, and there put an end to his life by starvation, not wishing to live any longer. But Hermippus says, that when there was war between the people of Agrigentum and the Syracusans, Pythagoras went out with his usual companions, and took the part of the Agrigentines; and as they were put to flight, he ran all round a field of beans, instead of crossing it, and so was slain by the Syracusans; and that the rest, being about five-and-thirty in number, were burnt at Tarentum, when they were trying to excite a sedition in the state against the principal magistrates.

But Dicæarchus says that Pythagoras escaped as far as the temple of the Muses at Metapontum. He died there later of starvation, after going without food for forty days. Heraclides gives another account in his abridgment of the life of Satyrus. After burying Pherecydes in Delos, Pythagoras returned to Italy. There he found a splendid banquet prepared at the house of Milo of Crotona. He left Crotona for Metapontum, where he starved himself to death because he no longer wished to live. But Hermippus says that Pythagoras went out with his usual companions during a war between the Agrigentines and the Syracusans. They fought on the side of the Agrigentines. When the Agrigentines were put to flight, Pythagoras ran around a field of beans instead of crossing it. As a result, he was killed by the Syracusans. The rest of his companions, about thirty-five in number, were burned at Tarentum. They had been trying to stir up a revolt in the state against the chief magistrates.

Hermippus also relates another story about Pythagoras. For he says that when he was in Italy, he made a subterraneous apartment, and charged his mother to write an account of everything that took place, marking the time of each on a tablet, and then to send them down to him, until he came up again; and that his mother did so; and that Pythagoras came up again after a certain time, lean, and reduced to a skeleton; and that he came into the public assembly, and said that he had arrived from the shades below, and then he recited to them all that had happened during his absence. And they, being charmed by what he told them, wept and lamented, and believed that Pythagoras was a divine being; so that they even entrusted their wives to him, as likely to learn some good from him; and that they too were called Pythagoreans. And this is the story of Hermippus.

Hermippus also tells another story about Pythagoras. He says that while Pythagoras was in Italy, he built an underground room. Pythagoras told his mother to write down everything that happened and note the time of each event on a tablet. She was to send these records down to him until he came back up. His mother did as he asked. After some time, Pythagoras emerged, thin and reduced to a skeleton. He came before the public assembly and said he had returned from the underworld. He then recounted everything that had happened during his absence. The people were captivated by his account. They wept and mourned, and believed that Pythagoras was a divine being. They even entrusted their wives to him, believing the women would likely learn something good from him. The women, too, were called Pythagoreans. This is the story told by Hermippus.

XXII. And Pythagoras had a wife, whose name was Theano; the daughter of Brontinus, of Crotona. But some say that she was the wife of Brontinus, and only a pupil of Pythagoras. And he had a daughter named Damo, as Lysis mentions in his letter to Hipparchus; where he speaks thus of Pythagoras: “And many say that you philosophize in public, as Pythagoras also used to do; who, when he had entrusted his Commentaries to Damo, his daughter, charged her to divulge them to no person out of the house. And she, though she might have sold his discourses for much money, would not abandon them, for she thought poverty and obedience to her father’s injunctions more valuable than gold; and that too, though she was a woman.”

XXII. Pythagoras had a wife named Theano, the daughter of Brontinus of Crotona. But some say she was the wife of Brontinus and only a pupil of Pythagoras. He also had a daughter named Damo, as Lysis mentions in his letter to Hipparchus. There, Lysis writes about Pythagoras: “Many say that you teach philosophy in public, as Pythagoras also used to do. He entrusted his Commentaries to his daughter Damo and instructed her not to reveal them to anyone outside the house. Although she could have sold his writings for a great deal of money, she would not give them up. She valued poverty and obedience to her father’s instructions more than gold, even though she was a woman.”

He had also a son, named Telauges, who was the successor of his father in his school, and who, according to some authors, was the teacher of Empedocles. At least Hippobotus relates that Empedocles said:—

He also had a son named Telauges, who succeeded him as head of his school. According to some authors, Telauges taught Empedocles. At least, Hippobotus reports that Empedocles said:

But there is no book extant, which is the work of Telauges, though there are some extant, which are attributed to his mother Theano. And they tell a story of her, that once, when she was asked how long a woman ought to be absent from her husband to be pure, she said, the moment she leaves her own husband, she is pure; but she is never pure at all, after she leaves any one else. And she recommended a woman, who was going to her husband, to put off her modesty with her clothes, and when she left him, to resume it again with her clothes; and when she was asked, “What clothes?” she said, “Those which cause you to be called a woman.”

But no book written by Telauges survives, though some survive that are attributed to his mother, Theano. A story is told about her. Once, she was asked how long a woman had to be away from her husband to be pure. She replied that a woman is pure the moment she leaves her own husband. But after leaving any other man, she is never pure at all. She also advised a woman going to her husband to take off her modesty along with her clothes. When the woman left him, she should put her modesty back on with her clothes. When Theano was asked, “What clothes?” she replied, “Those that cause you to be called a woman.”

XXIII. Now Pythagoras, as Heraclides, the son of Sarapion, relates, died when he was eighty years of age; according to his own account of his age, but according to the common account, he was more than ninety. And we have written a sportive epigram on him, which is couched in the following terms:—

XXIII. According to Heraclides, the son of Sarapion, Pythagoras died at eighty, by his own account of his age. But according to the common account, he was more than ninety. I have written a playful epigram about him, which goes as follows:

And another, which runs thus:—

And another, which reads as follows:

And another, as follows:—

And another reads as follows:

And this one too:

And this one too:

XXIV. And he flourished about the sixtieth olympiad; and his system lasted for nine or ten generations. And the last of the Pythagoreans, whom Aristoxenus knew, were Xenophilus, the Chalcidean, from Thrace; and Phanton, the Phliasian, and Echecrates, and Diodes, and Polymnestus, who were also Phliasians, and they were disciples of Philolaus and Eurytus, of Tarentum.

XXIV. He flourished around the sixtieth Olympiad, and his system lasted for nine or ten generations. The last Pythagoreans known to Aristoxenus were Xenophilus, a Chalcidean from Thrace, and Phanton, Echecrates, Diodes, and Polymnestus, who were from Phlius. They were disciples of Philolaus and Eurytus of Tarentum.

XXV. And there were four men of the name of Pythagoras, about the same time, at no great distance from one another. One was a native of Crotona, a man who attained tyrannical power; the second was a Phliasian, a trainer of wrestlers, as some say; the third was a native of Zacynthus; the fourth was this our philosopher, to whom they say the mysteries of philosophy belong, in whose time that proverbial phrase, “Ipse dixit,” was introduced into ordinary life. Some also affirm, that there was another man of the name of Pythagoras, a statuary of Rhodes; who is believed to have been the first discoverer of rhythm and proportion; and another was a Samian statuary; and another an orator, of no reputation; and another was a physician, who wrote a treatise on Squills; and also some essays on Homer; and another was a man, who wrote a history of the affairs of the Dorians, as we are told by Dionysius.

XXV. There were four men named Pythagoras who lived around the same time, not far from one another. One was from Crotona and gained power as a tyrant. The second was from Phlias and, according to some, trained wrestlers. The third was from Zacynthus. The fourth was our philosopher, to whom they say the mysteries of philosophy belong. In his time, the proverbial phrase “Ipse dixit” came into everyday use. Some also say there was another Pythagoras, a sculptor from Rhodes. He is believed to have been the first to discover rhythm and proportion. Another was a sculptor from Samos. Another was an orator of no reputation. Another was a physician who wrote a treatise on Squills and some essays on Homer. And another wrote a history of the affairs of the Dorians, according to Dionysius.

But Eratosthenes says, as Phavorinus quotes him, in the eighth book of his Universal History, that this philosopher, of whom we are speaking, was the first man who ever practised boxing in a scientific manner, in the forty-eighth olympiad, having his hair long, and being clothed in a purple robe; and that he was rejected from the competition among boys, and being ridiculed for his application, he immediately entered among the men, and came off victorious. And this statement is confirmed among other things, by the epigram which Theætetus composed:—

But Eratosthenes says that the philosopher we are discussing was the first to practice boxing scientifically. Phavorinus quotes Eratosthenes on this point from the eighth book of his Universal History. The philosopher boxed in the forty-eighth olympiad, wearing his hair long and dressed in a purple robe. He was rejected from the boys’ competition and ridiculed for applying. He immediately entered the men’s competition and won. Among other things, an epigram by Theætetus confirms this account:

Phavorinus says, that he employed definitions, on account of the mathematical subjects to which he applied himself. And that Socrates and those who were his pupils, did so still more; and that they were subsequently followed in this by Aristotle and the Stoics.

Phavorinus says he used definitions because of the mathematical subjects he studied. Socrates and his pupils used definitions even more. Aristotle and the Stoics later followed their example.

He too, was the first person, who ever gave the name of κόσμος to the universe, and the first who called the earth round; though Theophrastus attributes this to Parmenides, and Zeno to Hesiod. They say too, that Cylon used to be a constant adversary of his, as Antidicus was of Socrates. And this epigram also used to be repeated, concerning Pythagoras the athlete:—

He was also the first to call the universe κόσμος and the first to say that the earth was round. Though Theophrastus attributes the latter claim to Parmenides, and Zeno attributes it to Hesiod. They also say that Cylon was his constant opponent, just as Antidicus was Socrates' constant opponent. This epigram about Pythagoras the athlete was also commonly repeated:

XXVI. There is a letter of this philosopher extant, which is couched in the following terms:—

XXVI. A letter by this philosopher survives. It reads as follows:

“You too, my most excellent friend, if you were not superior to Pythagoras, in birth and reputation, would have migrated from Miletus and gone elsewhere. But now the reputation of your father keeps you back, which perhaps would have restrained me too, if I had been like Anaximenes. But if you, who are the most eminent man, abandon the cities, all their ornaments will be taken from them, and the Median power will be more dangerous to them. Nor is it always seasonable to be studying astronomy, but it is more honourable to exhibit a regard for one’s country. And I myself am not always occupied about speculations of my own fancy, but I am busied also with the wars which the Italians are waging against one another.”

“You too, my excellent friend, would have left Miletus for somewhere else if you were not superior to Pythagoras in birth and reputation. But your father’s reputation keeps you there. Perhaps it would have kept me there too, if I had been like Anaximenes. But if you, the most eminent man, leave the cities, they will lose all their ornaments. The Median power will also become more dangerous to them. Nor is it always the right time to study astronomy. It is more honorable to show concern for one’s country. I myself do not spend all my time on my own speculations. I am also occupied with the wars the Italians are waging against one another.”

But since we have now finished our account of Pythagoras, we must also speak of the most eminent of the Pythagoreans. After whom, we must mention those who are spoken of more promiscuously in connection with no particular school; and then we will connect the whole series of philosophers worth speaking of, till we arrive at Epicurus, as we have already promised.

Now that we have finished our account of Pythagoras, we must also discuss the most eminent Pythagoreans. After them, we must mention those discussed more generally, without connection to any particular school. Then, as promised, we will trace the whole succession of philosophers worth discussing, until we reach Epicurus.

Now Telauges and Theano we have mentioned; and we must now speak of Empedocles, in the first place, for, according to some accounts, he was a pupil of Pythagoras.

We have mentioned Telauges and Theano. Now we must speak first of Empedocles, because some accounts say he was a pupil of Pythagoras.