Introduction

I. Some say that the study of philosophy originated with the barbarians. In that among the Persians there existed the Magi,¹ and among the Babylonians or Assyrians the Chaldæi,² among the Indians the Gymnosophistæ,³ and among the Celts and Gauls men who were called Druids⁴ and Semnothei, as Aristotle relates in his book on Magic, and Sotion in the twenty-third book of his Succession of Philosophers. Besides those men there were the Phœnician Ochus, the Thracian Zamolxis,⁵ and the Libyan Atlas. For the Egyptians say that Vulcan was the son of Nilus, and that he was the author of philosophy, in which those who were especially eminent were called his priests and prophets.

I. Some say that philosophy began among the barbarians. They point to the Magi¹ among the Persians, the Chaldæi² among the Babylonians or Assyrians, and the Gymnosophistæ³ among the Indians. Among the Celts and Gauls, there were also men called Druids⁴ and Semnothei. Aristotle mentions them in his book on Magic, as does Sotion in the twenty-third book of his Succession of Philosophers. Besides these men, there were the Phœnician Ochus, the Thracian Zamolxis,⁵ and the Libyan Atlas. The Egyptians say that Vulcan was the son of Nilus and that he founded philosophy. They called those especially distinguished in philosophy his priests and prophets.

II. From his age to that of Alexander, king of the Macedonians were forty-eight thousand eight hundred and sixty-three years, and during this time there were three hundred and seventy-three eclipses of the sun, and eight hundred and thirty-two eclipses of the moon.

II. From his time to that of Alexander, king of the Macedonians, 48,863 years passed. During that time, there were 373 solar eclipses and 832 lunar eclipses.

Again, from the time of the Magi, the first of whom was Zoroaster the Persian, to that of the fall of Troy, Hermodorus the Platonic philosopher, in his treatise on Mathematics, calculates that fifteen thousand years elapsed. But Xanthus the Lydian says that the passage of the Hellespont by Xerxes took place six thousand years after the time of Zoroaster,⁶ and that after him there was a regular succession of Magi under the names of Ostanes and Astrampsychos and Gobryas and Pazatas, until the destruction of the Persian empire by Alexander.

Hermodorus, the Platonic philosopher, gives another calculation in his treatise on Mathematics. He says fifteen thousand years passed between the time of the Magi and the fall of Troy. The first of the Magi was Zoroaster the Persian. But Xanthus the Lydian says that Xerxes crossed the Hellespont six thousand years after the time of Zoroaster.⁶ He also says that Zoroaster was followed by an unbroken succession of Magi. These included Ostanes, Astrampsychos, Gobryas, and Pazatas. The succession lasted until Alexander destroyed the Persian empire.

III. But those who say this, ignorantly impute to the barbarians the merits of the Greeks, from whom not only all philosophy, but even the whole human race in reality originated. For Musæus was born among the Athenians, and Linus among the Thebans; and they say that the former, who was the son of Eumolpus, was the first person who taught the system of the genealogy of the gods, and who invented the spheres; and that he taught that all things originated in one thing, and when dissolved returned to that same thing; and that he died at Phalerum, and that this epitaph was inscribed on his tomb:—

III. But those who say this mistakenly give the barbarians credit for the achievements of the Greeks. In fact, not only all philosophy but the whole human race originated with the Greeks. Musæus was born among the Athenians, and Linus among the Thebans. They say that Musæus, the son of Eumolpus, was the first to teach the genealogy of the gods. They also say he invented the spheres. He taught that all things came from one thing and return to that same thing when they dissolve. He died at Phalerum, and this epitaph was inscribed on his tomb:

And it is from the father of Musæus that the family called Eumolpidæ among the Athenians derive their name. They say too that Linus was the son of Mercury and the Muse Urania; and that he invented a system of Cosmogony, and of the motions of the sun and moon, and of the generation of animals and fruits; and the following is the beginning of his poem,

The Athenian family called the Eumolpidæ takes its name from the father of Musæus. They also say that Linus was the son of Mercury and the Muse Urania. Linus devised a system explaining the origins of the universe, the movements of the sun and moon, and the generation of animals and fruits. His poem begins as follows:

From which Anaxagoras derived his theory, when he said that all things had been produced at the same time, and that then intellect had come and arranged them all in order.

From this, Anaxagoras developed his theory. He said that all things came into being at the same time. Then intellect came and arranged them all in order.

They say, moreover, that Linus died in Eubœa, having been shot with an arrow by Apollo, and that this epitaph was set over him:—

They also say that Apollo shot Linus with an arrow, and that Linus died in Eubœa. This epitaph was placed over him:

IV. And thus did philosophy arise among the Greeks, and indeed its very name shows that it has no connection with the barbarians. But those who attribute its origin to them, introduce Orpheus the Thracian, and say that he was a philosopher, and the most ancient one of all. But if one ought to call a man who has said such things about the gods as he has said, a philosopher, I do not know what name one ought to give to him who has not scrupled to attribute all sorts of human feelings to the gods, and even such discreditable actions as are but rarely spoken of among men; and tradition relates that he was murdered by women;⁷ but there is an inscription at Dium in Macedonia, saying that he was killed by lightning, and it runs thus:—

IV. Philosophy arose among the Greeks, and its very name shows that it has no connection with the barbarians. But those who trace its origin to the barbarians bring up Orpheus the Thracian. They say that he was a philosopher, and the earliest of all. But if a man who said such things about the gods should be called a philosopher, I do not know what to call him. He did not hesitate to attribute all sorts of human feelings to the gods. He even attributed to them shameful actions that are rarely spoken of among men. Tradition says that he was murdered by women.⁷ But an inscription at Dium in Macedonia says that he was killed by lightning. It reads as follows:

V. But they who say that philosophy had its rise among the barbarians, give also an account of the different systems prevailing among the various tribes. And they say that the Gymnosophists and the Druids philosophize, delivering their apophthegms in enigmatical language, bidding men worship the gods and do no evil, and practise manly virtue.

V. But those who say philosophy began among the barbarians also describe the different systems practiced by various tribes. They say that the Gymnosophists and the Druids express their philosophical sayings in riddles. They tell people to worship the gods, do no evil, and practice manly virtue.

VI. Accordingly Clitarchus, in his twelfth book, says that the Gymnosophists despise death, and that the Chaldæans study astronomy and the science of soothsaying—that the Magi occupy themselves about the service to be paid to the gods, and about sacrifices and prayers, as if they were the only people to whom the deities listen: and that they deliver accounts of the existence and generation of the gods, saying that they are fire, and earth, and water; and they condemn the use of images, and above all things do they condemn those who say that the gods are male and female; they speak much of justice, and think it impious to destroy the bodies of the dead by fire; they allow men to marry their mothers or their daughters, as Sotion tells us in his twenty-third book; they study the arts of soothsaying and divination, and assert that the gods reveal their will to them by those sciences. They teach also that the air is full of phantoms, which, by emanation and a sort of evaporation, glide into the sight of those who have a clear perception; they forbid any extravagance of ornament, and the use of gold; their garments are white, their beds are made of leaves, and vegetables are their food, with cheese and coarse bread; they use a rush for a staff, the top of which they run into the cheese, and so taking up a piece of it they eat it. Of all kinds of magical divination they are ignorant, as Aristotle asserts in his book on Magic, and Dinon in the fifth book of his Histories. And this writer says, that the name of Zoroaster being interpreted means, a sacrifice to the stars; and Hermodorus makes the same statement. But Aristotle, in the first book of his Treatise on Philosophy, says, that the Magi are more ancient than the Egyptians; and that according to them there are two principles, a good demon and an evil demon, and that the name of the one is Jupiter or Oromasdes, and that of the other Pluto or Arimanius. And Hermippus gives the same account in the first book of his History of the Magi; and so does Eudoxus in his Period; and so does Theopompus in the eighth book of his History of the Affairs of Philip; and this last writer tells us also, that according to the Magi men will have a resurrection and be immortal, and that what exists now will exist hereafter under its own present name; and Eudemus of Rhodes coincides in this statement. But Hecatæus says, that according to their doctrines the gods also are beings who have been born. But Clearchus the Solensian, in his Treatise on Education says, that the Gymnosophists are descendants of the Magi; and some say that the Jews also are derived from them. Moreover, those who have written on the subject of the Magi condemn Herodotus; for they say that Xerxes would never have shot arrows against the sun, or have put fetters on the sea, as both sun and sea have been handed down by the Magi as gods, but that it was quite consistent for Xerxes to destroy the images of the gods.

VI. Accordingly, Clitarchus says in his twelfth book that the Gymnosophists despise death. He says that the Chaldæans study astronomy and the science of soothsaying. The Magi concern themselves with worship, sacrifices, and prayers, as if the gods listened only to them. They give accounts of the existence and origin of the gods, saying that the gods are fire, earth, and water. They condemn the use of images, and above all they condemn those who say that the gods are male and female. They speak much about justice and think it impious to burn the bodies of the dead. They allow men to marry their mothers or daughters, as Sotion tells us in his twenty-third book. They study soothsaying and divination, and say that the gods reveal their will to them through these arts. They also teach that the air is full of phantoms. These glide into the sight of those with clear perception through emanation and a kind of evaporation. The Magi forbid extravagant adornment and the use of gold. They wear white clothes, sleep on beds of leaves, and eat vegetables, cheese, and coarse bread. They use a rush as a staff, and push its tip into the cheese to pick up a piece and eat it. They know nothing of any kind of magical divination, as Aristotle says in his book on Magic and Dinon says in the fifth book of his Histories. Dinon also says that the name Zoroaster means a sacrifice to the stars, and Hermodorus says the same. But Aristotle says in the first book of his Treatise on Philosophy that the Magi are older than the Egyptians. He says that they believe in two principles, a good demon and an evil demon. The good demon is called Jupiter or Oromasdes, and the evil demon is called Pluto or Arimanius. Hermippus gives the same account in the first book of his History of the Magi, as does Eudoxus in his Period. Theopompus also gives the same account in the eighth book of his History of the Affairs of Philip. Theopompus adds that, according to the Magi, people will rise from the dead and become immortal. He says they also believe that what exists now will exist hereafter under its present name. Eudemus of Rhodes agrees with this account. But Hecatæus says that, according to their doctrines, the gods too are beings who have been born. Clearchus the Solensian says in his Treatise on Education that the Gymnosophists are descendants of the Magi. Some say that the Jews also descend from them. Moreover, writers on the Magi criticize Herodotus. They say that Xerxes would never have shot arrows at the sun or put fetters on the sea. The Magi had handed down the belief that both the sun and the sea were gods. But, they say, it was perfectly consistent for Xerxes to destroy images of the gods.

VII. The following is the account that authors give of the philosophy of the Egyptians, as bearing on the gods and on justice. They say that the first principle is matter; then that the four elements were formed out of matter and divided, and that some animals were created, and that the sun and moon are gods, of whom the former is called Osiris and the latter Isis, and they are symbolised under the names of beetles and dragons, and hawks, and other animals, as Manetho tells us in his abridged account of Natural Philosophy, and Hecatæus confirms the statement in the first book of his History of the Philosophy of the Egyptians. They also make images of the gods, and assign them temples because they do not know the form of God. They consider that the world had a beginning and will have an end, and that it is a sphere; they think that the stars are fire, and that it is by a combination of them that the things on earth are generated; that the moon is eclipsed when it falls into the shadow of the earth; that the soul is eternal and migratory; that rain is caused by the changes of the atmosphere; and they enter into other speculations on points of natural history, as Hecatæus and Aristagoras inform us.

VII. Authors give the following account of Egyptian philosophy concerning the gods and justice. They say that matter is the first principle. The four elements were then formed from matter and separated, and some animals were created. They say that the sun and moon are gods. The sun is called Osiris, and the moon is called Isis. They are represented by beetles, dragons, hawks, and other animals. Manetho gives this account in his abridged Natural Philosophy. Hecatæus confirms it in the first book of his History of the Philosophy of the Egyptians. The Egyptians also make images of the gods and give them temples because they do not know the form of God. They believe that the world had a beginning, will have an end, and is spherical. They think that the stars are fire and that things on earth are generated by a combination of the stars. They believe that the moon is eclipsed when it passes into the earth’s shadow. They also believe that the soul is eternal and moves from one body to another, and that rain results from changes in the atmosphere. As Hecatæus and Aristagoras tell us, they also speculate about other questions of natural history.

They also have made laws about justice, which they attribute to Mercury, and they consider those animals which are useful to be gods. They claim to themselves the merit of having been the inventors of geometry, and astrology, and arithmetic. So much then for the subject of invention.

They have also made laws about justice, which they attribute to Mercury. They consider useful animals to be gods. They claim to have invented geometry, astrology, and arithmetic. That concludes the subject of invention.

VIII. But Pythagoras was the first person who invented the term Philosophy, and who called himself a philosopher; when he was conversing at Sicyon with Leon, who was tyrant of the Sicyonians or of the Phliasians (as Heraclides Ponticus relates in the book which he wrote about a dead woman); for he said that no man ought to be called wise, but only God. For formerly what is now called philosophy (φιλοσοφία) was called wisdom (σοφία), and they who professed it were called wise men (σοφοὶ), as being endowed with great acuteness and accuracy of mind; but now he who embraces wisdom is called a philosopher (φιλόσοφος).

VIII. But Pythagoras was the first to coin the term philosophy and to call himself a philosopher. He did so while talking with Leon at Sicyon. Leon was the tyrant of either the Sicyonians or the Phliasians. Heraclides Ponticus relates this in his book about a dead woman. Pythagoras said that no man should be called wise, but only God. Before then, what is now called philosophy (φιλοσοφία) was called wisdom (σοφία). Those who practiced it were called wise men (σοφοὶ), because they were considered to have exceptionally sharp and precise minds. But now someone who embraces wisdom is called a philosopher (φιλόσοφος).

But the wise men were also called Sophists. And not only they, but poets also were called Sophists: as Cratinus in his Archilochi calls Homer and Hesiod, while praising them highly.

But wise men were also called Sophists. Poets, too, were called Sophists. For example, Cratinus calls Homer and Hesiod Sophists in his Archilochi, while praising them highly.

IX. Now these were they who were accounted wise men. Thales, Solon, Periander, Cleobulus, Chilo, Bias, Pittacus. To these men add Anacharsis the Scythian, Myson the Chenean, Pherecydes the Syrian, and Epimenides the Cretan; and some add, Pisistratus, the tyrant: These then are they who were called the wise men.

IX. These were the men considered wise: Thales, Solon, Periander, Cleobulus, Chilo, Bias, and Pittacus. To these, add Anacharsis the Scythian, Myson the Chenean, Pherecydes the Syrian, and Epimenides the Cretan. Some also add Pisistratus, the tyrant. These, then, were the men called wise.

X. But of Philosophy there arose two schools. One derived from Anaximander, the other from Pythagoras. Now, Thales had been the preceptor of Anaximander, and Pherecydes of Pythagoras. And the one school was called the Ionian, because Thales, being an Ionian (for he was a native of Miletus), had been the tutor of Anaximander;—but the other was called the Italian from Pythagoras, because he spent the chief part of his life in Italy. And the Ionic school ends with Clitomachus, and Chrysippus, and Theophrastus; and the Italian one with Epicurus; for Anaximander succeeded Thales, and he was succeeded again by Anaximenes, and he by Anaxagoras, and he by Archelaus, who was the master of Socrates, who was the originator of moral philosophy. And he was the master of the sect of the Socratic philosophers, and of Plato, who was the founder of the old Academy; and Plato’s pupils were Speusippus and Xenocrates; and Polemo was the pupil of Xenocrates, and Crantor and Crates of Polemo. Crates again was the master of Arcesilaus, the founder of the Middle Academy, and his pupil was Lacydes, who gave the new Academy its distinctive principles. His pupil was Carneades, and he in his turn was the master of Clitomachus. And this school ends in this way with Clitomachus and Chrysippus.

X. Two schools of philosophy arose. One came from Anaximander, the other from Pythagoras. Thales had taught Anaximander, and Pherecydes had taught Pythagoras. The first school was called Ionian because Anaximander’s teacher Thales was an Ionian, a native of Miletus. The other was called Italian after Pythagoras, because he spent most of his life in Italy. The Ionian school ends with Clitomachus, Chrysippus, and Theophrastus. The Italian school ends with Epicurus. Anaximander succeeded Thales. Anaximenes succeeded Anaximander, followed by Anaxagoras and then Archelaus. Archelaus taught Socrates, who founded moral philosophy. Socrates taught the Socratic philosophers and Plato, who founded the old Academy. Plato’s pupils were Speusippus and Xenocrates. Polemo was Xenocrates’ pupil, and Crantor and Crates were Polemo’s pupils. Crates taught Arcesilaus, who founded the Middle Academy. Arcesilaus taught Lacydes, who gave the new Academy its distinctive principles. Lacydes taught Carneades, who in turn taught Clitomachus. In this way, the school ends with Clitomachus and Chrysippus.

Antisthenes was the pupil of Socrates, and the master of Diogenes the Cynic; and the pupil of Diogenes was Crates the Theban; Zeno the Cittiæan was his; Cleanthes was his; Chrysippus was his. Again it ends with Theophrastus in the following manner:—

Antisthenes was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Diogenes the Cynic. Diogenes taught Crates the Theban, who taught Zeno the Cittiæan. Zeno taught Cleanthes, who taught Chrysippus. Another line ends with Theophrastus, as follows:

Aristotle was the pupil of Plato, Theophrastus the pupil of Aristotle; and in this way the Ionian school comes to an end.

Aristotle was Plato’s student, and Theophrastus was Aristotle’s student. This is how the Ionian school came to an end.

Now the Italian school was carried on in this way. Pythagoras was the pupil of Pherecydes; his pupil was Telauges his son; he was the master of Xenophanes, and he of Parmenides; Parmenides of Zeno the Eleatic, he of Leucippus, he of Democritus: Democritus had many disciples, the most eminent of whom were Nausiphanes and Nausicydes, and they were the masters of Epicurus.

The Italian school continued in this way. Pythagoras was a student of Pherecydes. Pythagoras taught his son Telauges, who taught Xenophanes. Xenophanes taught Parmenides, who taught Zeno the Eleatic. Zeno taught Leucippus, who taught Democritus. Democritus had many students, the most distinguished of whom were Nausiphanes and Nausicydes. They taught Epicurus.

XI. Now, of Philosophers some were dogmatic, and others were inclined to suspend their opinions. By dogmatic, I mean those who explain their opinions about matters, as if they could be comprehended. By those who suspend their opinions, I mean those who give no positive judgment, thinking that these things cannot be comprehended. And the former class have left many memorials of themselves; but the others have never written a line; as for instance, according to some people, Socrates, and Stilpo, and Philippus, and Menedemus, and Pyrrho, and Theodorus, and Carneades, and Bryson; and, as some people say, Pythagoras, and Aristo of Chios, except that he wrote a few letters. There are some men too who have written one work only, Melissus, Parmenides, and Anaxagoras; but Zeno wrote many works, Xenophanes still more; Democritus more, Aristotle more, Epicurus more, and Chrysippus more.

XI. Some philosophers were dogmatic, while others tended to suspend judgment. By dogmatic philosophers, I mean those who state their opinions about matters as if those matters could be understood. By those who suspend judgment, I mean those who make no definite judgment because they believe these matters cannot be understood. The dogmatic philosophers left many written records of themselves, but the others never wrote a line. According to some, these included Socrates, Stilpo, Philippus, Menedemus, Pyrrho, Theodorus, Carneades, and Bryson. Some also include Pythagoras and Aristo of Chios, although Aristo wrote a few letters. Some philosophers wrote only one work: Melissus, Parmenides, and Anaxagoras. But Zeno wrote many works, and Xenophanes wrote still more. Democritus wrote more than Xenophanes, Aristotle more than Democritus, Epicurus more than Aristotle, and Chrysippus more than Epicurus.

XII. Again, of philosophers some derived a surname from cities, as, the Elians, and Megaric sect, the Eretrians, and the Cyrenaics. Some from the places which they frequented, as the Academics and Stoics. Some from accidental circumstances, as the Peripatetics; or, from jests, as the Cynics. Some again from their dispositions, as the Eudæmonics; some from an opinion, as the Elenctic, and Analogical schools. Some from their masters, as the Socratic and Epicurean philosophers; and so on. The Natural Philosophers were so called from their study of nature; the Ethical philosophers from their investigation of questions of morals (περὶ τὰ ἔθη). The Dialecticians are they who devote themselves to quibbling on words.

XII. Some philosophers took their names from cities, such as the Elians, the Megaric sect, the Eretrians, and the Cyrenaics. Others took their names from places they frequented, such as the Academics and Stoics. Some were named after chance circumstances, such as the Peripatetics, or after jokes, such as the Cynics. Some took their names from their dispositions, such as the Eudæmonics. Others took theirs from an opinion, such as the Elenctic and Analogical schools. Some took their names from their teachers, such as the Socratic and Epicurean philosophers, and so on. The Natural Philosophers were named for their study of nature. The Ethical philosophers were named for their investigation of moral questions (περὶ τὰ ἔθη). The Dialecticians devote themselves to quibbling over words.

XIII. Now there are three divisions of philosophy. Natural, Ethical, and Dialectic. Natural philosophy occupies itself about the world and the things in it; Ethical philosophy about life, and the things which concern us; Dialectics are conversant with the arguments by which both the others are supported.

XIII. Philosophy has three divisions: natural philosophy, ethics, and dialectic. Natural philosophy studies the world and the things in it. Ethics deals with life and the things that concern us. Dialectic deals with the arguments that support both natural philosophy and ethics.

Natural philosophy prevailed till the time of Archelaus; but after the time of Socrates, Ethical philosophy was predominant; and after the time of Zeno the Eleatic, Dialectic philosophy got the upper hand.

Natural philosophy was dominant until the time of Archelaus. But after Socrates, ethical philosophy became dominant. After Zeno the Eleatic, dialectical philosophy gained the upper hand.

Ethical philosophy was subdivided into ten sects; the Academic, the Cyrenaic, the Elian, the Megaric, the Cynic, the Eretrian, the Dialectic, the Peripatetic, the Stoic, and the Epicurean. Of the old Academic school Plato was the president; of the middle, Arcesilaus; and of the New, Lacydes:—the Cyrenaic school was founded by Aristippus the Cyrenian; the Elian, by Phædo, of Elis; the Megaric, by Euclid, of Megara; the Cynic, by Antisthenes, the Athenian; the Eretrian, by Menedemus, of Eretria; the Dialectic by Clitomachus, the Carthaginian; the Peripatetic, by Aristotle, the Stagirite; the Stoic, by Zeno, the Cittiæan; the Epicurean school derives its name from Epicurus, its founder.

Ethical philosophy was divided into ten schools: the Academic, Cyrenaic, Elian, Megaric, Cynic, Eretrian, Dialectic, Peripatetic, Stoic, and Epicurean. Plato led the Old Academic school, Arcesilaus the Middle, and Lacydes the New. Aristippus of Cyrene founded the Cyrenaic school. Phædo of Elis founded the Elian school, and Euclid of Megara founded the Megaric. Antisthenes of Athens founded the Cynic school, and Menedemus of Eretria founded the Eretrian. Clitomachus of Carthage founded the Dialectic school, Aristotle of Stagira the Peripatetic, and Zeno of Cittium the Stoic. The Epicurean school takes its name from its founder, Epicurus.

But Hippobotus, in his Treatise on Sects, says that there are nine sects and schools: first, the Megaric; secondly, the Eretrian; thirdly, the Cyrenaic; fourthly, the Epicurean; fifthly, the Annicerean; sixthly, the Theodorean; seventhly, the sect of Zeno and the Stoics; eighthly, that of the Old Academy; and ninthly, the Peripatetic;—not counting either the Cynic, or the Eliac, or the Dialectic school. That also which is called the Pyrrhonean is repudiated by many writers, on account of the obscurity of its principles. But others consider that in some particulars it is a distinct sect, and in others not. For it does appear to be a sect—for what we call a sect, say they, is one which follows, or appears to follow, a principle which appears to it to be the true one; on which principle we correctly call the Sceptics a sect. But if by the name sect we understand those who incline to rules which are consistent with the principles which they profess, then the Pyrrhonean cannot be called a sect, for they have no rules or principles.

But Hippobotus, in his Treatise on Sects, says there are nine sects and schools. These are, first, the Megaric, second, the Eretrian, third, the Cyrenaic, fourth, the Epicurean, fifth, the Annicerean, sixth, the Theodorean, seventh, the school of Zeno and the Stoics, eighth, the Old Academy, and ninth, the Peripatetic. He does not count the Cynic, Eliac, or Dialectic school. Many writers also reject the so-called Pyrrhonean school because its principles are obscure. But others consider it a distinct sect in some respects and not in others. For it does seem to be a sect. They say that a sect is a group that follows, or appears to follow, a principle it considers true. By this definition, we are right to call the Sceptics a sect. But if by a sect we mean people who follow rules consistent with the principles they profess, the Pyrrhoneans cannot be called a sect, for they have no rules or principles.

These, then, are the beginnings, these are the successive masters, these are the divisions, and schools of philosophy.

These, then, are the origins of philosophy, its successive teachers, its divisions, and its schools.

XIV. Moreover, it is not long ago, that a new Eclectic school was set up by Potamo, of Alexandria, who picked out of the doctrines of each school what pleased him most. And as he himself says, in his Elementary Instruction, he thinks that there are certain criteria of truth: first of all the faculty which judges, and this is the superior one; the other that which is the foundation of the judgment, being a most exact appearance of the objects. And the first principles of everything he calls matter, and the agent, and the quality, and the place. For they show out of what, and by what, and how, and where anything is done. The end is that to which everything is referred; namely, a life made perfect with every virtue, not without the natural and external qualities of the body.

XIV. Not long ago, Potamo of Alexandria founded a new Eclectic school. He chose the doctrines he liked best from each school. In his Elementary Instruction, he says that there are certain criteria of truth. The first and superior criterion is the faculty that judges. The other is the basis for judgment, a most exact appearance of the objects. He calls matter, the agent, quality, and place the first principles of everything. These show what anything is made from, what makes it, how it is made, and where it is made. The end to which everything is directed is a life perfected by every virtue, not without the natural and external qualities of the body.

But we must now speak of the men themselves; and first of all about Thales.

But now we must speak of the men themselves, starting with Thales.