CHAPTER 1

I believe it is difficult for those who publish their own memoirs to escape the imputation of vanity; nor is this the only disadvantage under which they labour: it is also their misfortune, that what is uncommon is rarely, if ever, believed, and what is obvious we are apt to turn from with disgust, and to charge the writer with impertinence. People generally think those memoirs only worthy to be read or remembered which abound in great or striking events, those, in short, which in a high degree excite either admiration or pity: all others they consign to contempt and oblivion. It is therefore, I confess, not a little hazardous in a private and obscure individual, and a stranger too, thus to solicit the indulgent attention of the public; especially when I own I offer here the history of neither a saint, a hero, nor a tyrant. I believe there are few events in my life, which have not happened to many: it is true the incidents of it are numerous; and, did I consider myself an European, I might say my sufferings were great: but when I compare my lot with that of most of my countrymen, I regard myself as a particular favourite of Heaven, and acknowledge the mercies of Providence in every occurrence of my life. If then the following narrative does not appear sufficiently interesting to engage general attention, let my motive be some excuse for its publication. I am not so foolishly vain as to expect from it either immortality or literary reputation. If it affords any satisfaction to my numerous friends, at whose request it has been written, or in the smallest degree promotes the interests of humanity, the ends for which it was undertaken will be fully attained, and every wish of my heart gratified. Let it therefore be remembered, that, in wishing to avoid censure, I do not aspire to praise.

I believe people who publish their own memoirs find it hard to escape accusations of vanity. Nor is that the only difficulty they face. Unfortunately for them, unusual events are rarely, if ever, believed. Yet we tend to turn away in disgust from familiar events and accuse the writer of wasting our time. People generally think only memoirs full of great or striking events deserve to be read or remembered. In short, they value memoirs that stir strong feelings of admiration or pity. All others they dismiss with contempt and forget. So I admit that asking for the public’s generous attention is quite a risk for an unknown private individual. I am also a foreigner. The risk is especially great because, as I admit, I offer the life story of neither a saint, a hero, nor a tyrant. I believe few events in my life have not also happened to many others. My life has certainly been full of incidents. And if I considered myself a European, I might say I had suffered greatly. But compared with most of my countrymen, I consider myself a particular favourite of Heaven. I recognize the mercies of Providence in every event of my life. If the following narrative does not seem interesting enough to attract general attention, let my motive partly excuse its publication. I am not so foolishly vain as to expect lasting fame or a literary reputation from my narrative. I wrote it at the request of my many friends. If it gives them any satisfaction, or helps humanity in even the smallest way, its purposes will be fully achieved. Every wish of my heart will then be fulfilled. So please remember that although I wish to avoid criticism, I do not seek praise.

That part of Africa, known by the name of Guinea, to which the trade for slaves is carried on, extends along the coast above 3400 miles, from the Senegal to Angola, and includes a variety of kingdoms. Of these the most considerable is the kingdom of Benen, both as to extent and wealth, the richness and cultivation of the soil, the power of its king, and the number and warlike disposition of the inhabitants. It is situated nearly under the line, and extends along the coast about 170 miles, but runs back into the interior part of Africa to a distance hitherto I believe unexplored by any traveller; and seems only terminated at length by the empire of Abyssinia, near 1500 miles from its beginning. This kingdom is divided into many provinces or districts: in one of the most remote and fertile of which, called Eboe, I was born, in the year 1745, in a charming fruitful vale, named Essaka. The distance of this province from the capital of Benin and the sea coast must be very considerable; for I had never heard of white men or Europeans, nor of the sea: and our subjection to the king of Benin was little more than nominal; for every transaction of the government, as far as my slender observation extended, was conducted by the chiefs or elders of the place. The manners and government of a people who have little commerce with other countries are generally very simple; and the history of what passes in one family or village may serve as a specimen of a nation. My father was one of those elders or chiefs I have spoken of, and was styled Embrenche; a term, as I remember, importing the highest distinction, and signifying in our language a mark of grandeur. This mark is conferred on the person entitled to it, by cutting the skin across at the top of the forehead, and drawing it down to the eye-brows; and while it is in this situation applying a warm hand, and rubbing it until it shrinks up into a thick weal across the lower part of the forehead. Most of the judges and senators were thus marked; my father had long born it: I had seen it conferred on one of my brothers, and I was also destined to receive it by my parents. Those Embrence, or chief men, decided disputes and punished crimes; for which purpose they always assembled together. The proceedings were generally short; and in most cases the law of retaliation prevailed. I remember a man was brought before my father, and the other judges, for kidnapping a boy; and, although he was the son of a chief or senator, he was condemned to make recompense by a man or woman slave. Adultery, however, was sometimes punished with slavery or death; a punishment which I believe is inflicted on it throughout most of the nations of Africa^A: so sacred among them is the honour of the marriage bed, and so jealous are they of the fidelity of their wives. Of this I recollect an instance:—a woman was convicted before the judges of adultery, and delivered over, as the custom was, to her husband to be punished. Accordingly he determined to put her to death: but it being found, just before her execution, that she had an infant at her breast; and no woman being prevailed on to perform the part of a nurse, she was spared on account of the child. The men, however, do not preserve the same constancy to their wives, which they expect from them; for they indulge in a plurality, though seldom in more than two. Their mode of marriage is thus:—both parties are usually betrothed when young by their parents, (though I have known the males to betroth themselves). On this occasion a feast is prepared, and the bride and bridegroom stand up in the midst of all their friends, who are assembled for the purpose, while he declares she is thenceforth to be looked upon as his wife, and that no other person is to pay any addresses to her. This is also immediately proclaimed in the vicinity, on which the bride retires from the assembly. Some time after she is brought home to her husband, and then another feast is made, to which the relations of both parties are invited: her parents then deliver her to the bridegroom, accompanied with a number of blessings, and at the same time they tie round her waist a cotton string of the thickness of a goose-quill, which none but married women are permitted to wear: she is now considered as completely his wife; and at this time the dowry is given to the new married pair, which generally consists of portions of land, slaves, and cattle, household goods, and implements of husbandry. These are offered by the friends of both parties; besides which the parents of the bridegroom present gifts to those of the bride, whose property she is looked upon before marriage; but after it she is esteemed the sole property of her husband. The ceremony being now ended the festival begins, which is celebrated with bonefires, and loud acclamations of joy, accompanied with music and dancing.

The part of Africa called Guinea, where the slave trade takes place, stretches over 3,400 miles along the coast. It runs from the Senegal to Angola and includes many kingdoms. The most important is the kingdom of Benen, in its size, wealth, fertile and cultivated soil, and powerful king. It also stands out for its large population and the warlike nature of its people. Benen lies almost on the equator and stretches about 170 miles along the coast. But it reaches far into the African interior, to a distance that I believe no traveller has yet explored. It seems to end only at the empire of Abyssinia, nearly 1,500 miles from where it begins. The kingdom is divided into many provinces or districts. I was born in 1745 in Eboe, one of its most remote and fertile provinces. My birthplace was a lovely, fertile valley called Essaka. This province must be very far from the capital of Benin and the coast. For I had never heard of white men or Europeans, or of the sea. And our submission to the king of Benin was little more than a matter of name. As far as my limited observations showed, the local chiefs or elders handled every matter of government. The customs and government of people who have little trade with other countries are generally very simple. And an account of life in one family or village may serve as an example of the whole nation. My father was one of those elders or chiefs, and he held the title Embrenche. As I remember, this term conveyed the highest distinction and meant, in our language, a mark of greatness. A person entitled to this mark receives it through a cut across the skin at the top of the forehead. The skin is then pulled down to the eyebrows. While the skin is held there, a warm hand is applied and rubbed over it. This continues until the skin shrinks into a thick weal across the lower forehead. Most judges and senators bore this mark, and my father had worn it for many years. I had seen one of my brothers receive it, and my parents had also destined me to receive it. These Embrence, or leading men, settled disputes and punished crimes. They always met together for these purposes. Their proceedings were generally brief, and in most cases the law of retaliation applied. I remember a man being brought before my father and the other judges for kidnapping a boy. Although the man was the son of a chief or senator, he was ordered to provide compensation. He had to give a male or female slave. Adultery, however, was sometimes punished with slavery or death. I believe this punishment is imposed for adultery among most African nations^A. They hold the honour of marriage so sacred and guard their wives' faithfulness so jealously. I remember one example. A woman was convicted of adultery before the judges and handed over to her husband for punishment, as was customary. He decided to put her to death. But just before her execution, she was found to have a baby she was breastfeeding. No woman could be persuaded to nurse the baby, so the mother was spared for the child's sake. Men, however, do not remain as faithful to their wives as they expect their wives to remain to them. For men take several wives, though seldom more than two. Their marriage customs are as follows. Parents usually arrange the engagement of both parties while they are young. However, I have known males to arrange their own engagements. A feast is prepared for the occasion. The bride and bridegroom stand among all their friends, who have gathered for the purpose. The bridegroom declares that she must now be regarded as his wife and that no one else may court her. This declaration is immediately announced throughout the neighbourhood, after which the bride leaves the gathering. Some time later, she is brought to her husband's home. Another feast is then held, with relatives from both sides invited. Her parents hand her over to the bridegroom with many blessings. At the same time, they tie a cotton cord as thick as a goose quill around her waist. Only married women are allowed to wear this cord. She is now fully considered his wife. At this point, the newly married couple receive the dowry. It generally consists of pieces of land, slaves, cattle, household goods, and farming tools. Friends of both parties provide these gifts. In addition, the bridegroom's parents give gifts to the bride's parents. Before marriage, she is regarded as her parents' property. After marriage, however, she is considered her husband's sole property. Once the ceremony ends, the festival begins. The celebration includes bonfires and loud shouts of joy, accompanied by music and dancing.

We are almost a nation of dancers, musicians, and poets. Thus every great event, such as a triumphant return from battle, or other cause of public rejoicing is celebrated in public dances, which are accompanied with songs and music suited to the occasion. The assembly is separated into four divisions, which dance either apart or in succession, and each with a character peculiar to itself. The first division contains the married men, who in their dances frequently exhibit feats of arms, and the representation of a battle. To these succeed the married women, who dance in the second division. The young men occupy the third; and the maidens the fourth. Each represents some interesting scene of real life, such as a great achievement, domestic employment, a pathetic story, or some rural sport; and as the subject is generally founded on some recent event, it is therefore ever new. This gives our dances a spirit and variety which I have scarcely seen elsewhere^B. We have many musical instruments, particularly drums of different kinds, a piece of music which resembles a guitar, and another much like a stickado. These last are chiefly used by betrothed virgins, who play on them on all grand festivals.

We are almost a nation of dancers, musicians, and poets. So every great event is celebrated with public dances, accompanied by songs and music suited to the occasion. These events include a triumphant return from battle or any other cause for public rejoicing. The gathering is divided into four groups, which dance either separately or in turn, each with its own distinctive style. The first group consists of married men, whose dances often display feats of arms and portray a battle. The married women follow, dancing in the second group. The young men form the third group, and the unmarried young women form the fourth. Each group portrays an interesting scene from real life, such as a great achievement, household work, a moving story, or a rural game. Because the subject is usually based on a recent event, it is always new. This gives our dances an energy and variety I have rarely seen elsewhere^B. We have many musical instruments, especially different kinds of drums, an instrument resembling a guitar, and another like a stickado. These last two instruments are mainly played by young women who are virgins and engaged to be married. They play these instruments at all grand festivals.

As our manners are simple, our luxuries are few. The dress of both sexes is nearly the same. It generally consists of a long piece of callico, or muslin, wrapped loosely round the body, somewhat in the form of a highland plaid. This is usually dyed blue, which is our favourite colour. It is extracted from a berry, and is brighter and richer than any I have seen in Europe. Besides this, our women of distinction wear golden ornaments; which they dispose with some profusion on their arms and legs. When our women are not employed with the men in tillage, their usual occupation is spinning and weaving cotton, which they afterwards dye, and make it into garments. They also manufacture earthen vessels, of which we have many kinds. Among the rest tobacco pipes, made after the same fashion, and used in the same manner, as those in Turkey^C.

Because our way of life is simple, we have few luxuries. Men and women dress in nearly the same way. Their clothing generally consists of a long piece of calico or muslin wrapped loosely around the body. It looks somewhat like a Highland plaid. The cloth is usually dyed blue, our favourite colour. The blue dye comes from a berry and is brighter and richer than any I have seen in Europe. Besides this clothing, our women of high standing wear gold ornaments in considerable numbers on their arms and legs. When our women are not farming alongside the men, their usual work is spinning and weaving cotton. They then dye the cotton cloth and make it into clothing. They also make earthenware vessels, of which we have many kinds. These include tobacco pipes, made in the same style and used in the same way as those in Turkey^C.

Our manner of living is entirely plain; for as yet the natives are unacquainted with those refinements in cookery which debauch the taste: bullocks, goats, and poultry, supply the greatest part of their food. These constitute likewise the principal wealth of the country, and the chief articles of its commerce. The flesh is usually stewed in a pan; to make it savoury we sometimes use also pepper, and other spices, and we have salt made of wood ashes. Our vegetables are mostly plantains, eadas, yams, beans, and Indian corn. The head of the family usually eats alone; his wives and slaves have also their separate tables. Before we taste food we always wash our hands: indeed our cleanliness on all occasions is extreme; but on this it is an indispensable ceremony. After washing, libation is made, by pouring out a small portion of the food, in a certain place, for the spirits of departed relations, which the natives suppose to preside over their conduct, and guard them from evil. They are totally unacquainted with strong or spirituous liquours; and their principal beverage is palm wine. This is gotten from a tree of that name by tapping it at the top, and fastening a large gourd to it; and sometimes one tree will yield three or four gallons in a night. When just drawn it is of a most delicious sweetness; but in a few days it acquires a tartish and more spirituous flavour: though I never saw any one intoxicated by it. The same tree also produces nuts and oil. Our principal luxury is in perfumes; one sort of these is an odoriferous wood of delicious fragrance: the other a kind of earth; a small portion of which thrown into the fire diffuses a most powerful odour^D. We beat this wood into powder, and mix it with palm oil; with which both men and women perfume themselves.

Our way of living is entirely simple. Our people do not yet know the elaborate cooking methods that corrupt the taste. Cattle, goats, and poultry provide most of their food. These animals also make up the country's main wealth and its chief goods for trade. The meat is usually stewed in a pan. To add flavor, we sometimes use pepper and other spices, and we have salt made from wood ashes. Our vegetables are mostly plantains, eadas, yams, beans, and corn. The head of the family usually eats alone. His wives and slaves also have their own separate tables. Before we eat, we always wash our hands. Indeed, we are extremely clean on all occasions, but before eating, washing is an essential ritual. After washing, we make an offering by pouring out a small portion of food in a particular place. This offering is for the spirits of dead relatives. Our people believe these spirits watch over their conduct and protect them from evil. They know nothing of strong or distilled liquors, and their main drink is palm wine. Palm wine comes from the palm tree. We tap the tree at the top and attach a large gourd to collect the liquid. Sometimes one tree produces three or four gallons in a night. When freshly drawn, the wine is deliciously sweet. But after a few days, the wine develops a slightly sour taste and a stronger alcoholic flavor. Even so, I never saw anyone become drunk from drinking it. The same tree also produces nuts and oil. Our main luxury is perfume. One kind comes from a scented wood with a delightful fragrance. The other comes from a kind of earth. A small amount of this earth thrown into the fire gives off a very powerful scent^D. We pound the scented wood into powder and mix the powder with palm oil. Both men and women use this mixture to perfume themselves.

In our buildings we study convenience rather than ornament. Each master of a family has a large square piece of ground, surrounded with a moat or fence, or enclosed with a wall made of red earth tempered; which, when dry, is as hard as brick. Within this are his houses to accommodate his family and slaves; which, if numerous, frequently present the appearance of a village. In the middle stands the principal building, appropriated to the sole use of the master, and consisting of two apartments; in one of which he sits in the day with his family, the other is left apart for the reception of his friends. He has besides these a distinct apartment in which he sleeps, together with his male children. On each side are the apartments of his wives, who have also their separate day and night houses. The habitations of the slaves and their families are distributed throughout the rest of the enclosure. These houses never exceed one story in height: they are always built of wood, or stakes driven into the ground, crossed with wattles, and neatly plastered within, and without. The roof is thatched with reeds. Our day-houses are left open at the sides; but those in which we sleep are always covered, and plastered in the inside, with a composition mixed with cow-dung, to keep off the different insects, which annoy us during the night. The walls and floors also of these are generally covered with mats. Our beds consist of a platform, raised three or four feet from the ground, on which are laid skins, and different parts of a spungy tree called plaintain. Our covering is calico or muslin, the same as our dress. The usual seats are a few logs of wood; but we have benches, which are generally perfumed, to accommodate strangers: these compose the greater part of our household furniture. Houses so constructed and furnished require but little skill to erect them. Every man is a sufficient architect for the purpose. The whole neighbourhood afford their unanimous assistance in building them and in return receive, and expect no other recompense than a feast.

In our buildings, we value convenience rather than decoration. Each head of a family has a large square plot of land, surrounded by a moat or fence. Alternatively, the plot is enclosed by a wall of mixed red earth, which becomes as hard as brick when dry. Inside the enclosure are houses for his family and slaves. If there are many of them, the houses often look like a village. The main building stands in the middle and is reserved for the head of the family. It has two rooms. In one, he sits with his family during the day. The other is set aside for receiving his friends. He also has a separate room where he sleeps with his male children. On either side are his wives’ rooms. His wives also have separate houses for daytime use and for sleeping. The slaves and their families live in houses spread throughout the rest of the enclosure. These houses never rise above one story. They are always built of wood, or of stakes driven into the ground and crossed with woven branches. The houses are neatly plastered inside and out. The roofs are thatched with reeds. Our daytime houses are left open at the sides. But our sleeping houses are always covered and plastered inside with a mixture containing cow dung. This mixture keeps away the various insects that bother us at night. The walls and floors of our sleeping houses are also generally covered with mats. Our beds are platforms raised three or four feet above the ground. On these platforms, we lay skins and various parts of a spongy tree called plantain. Our bed coverings are calico or muslin, the same fabrics we wear. Our usual seats are a few wooden logs. But we have benches for visitors, and these are generally scented. These items make up most of our household furniture. Building and furnishing houses like these requires little skill. Every man knows enough to build one. The whole neighborhood joins together to help build the houses. In return, the neighbors receive a feast and expect no other payment.

As we live in a country where nature is prodigal of her favours, our wants are few and easily supplied; of course we have few manufactures. They consist for the most part of calicoes, earthern ware, ornaments, and instruments of war and husbandry. But these make no part of our commerce, the principal articles of which, as I have observed, are provisions. In such a state money is of little use; however we have some small pieces of coin, if I may call them such. They are made something like an anchor; but I do not remember either their value or denomination. We have also markets, at which I have been frequently with my mother. These are sometimes visited by stout mahogany-coloured men from the south west of us: we call them Oye-Eboe, which term signifies red men living at a distance. They generally bring us fire-arms, gunpowder, hats, beads, and dried fish. The last we esteemed a great rarity, as our waters were only brooks and springs. These articles they barter with us for odoriferous woods and earth, and our salt of wood ashes. They always carry slaves through our land; but the strictest account is exacted of their manner of procuring them before they are suffered to pass. Sometimes indeed we sold slaves to them, but they were only prisoners of war, or such among us as had been convicted of kidnapping, or adultery, and some other crimes, which we esteemed heinous. This practice of kidnapping induces me to think, that, notwithstanding all our strictness, their principal business among us was to trepan our people. I remember too they carried great sacks along with them, which not long after I had an opportunity of fatally seeing applied to that infamous purpose.

We live in a country where nature gives generously, so our needs are few and easily met. As a result, we make few goods. These are mostly cotton cloth, earthenware, ornaments, weapons, and farming tools. But we do not trade these goods. As I have noted, our main trade is in food. In these circumstances, money is of little use. Still, we have some small coins, if I may call them that. They are shaped somewhat like an anchor, but I do not remember their value or what they were called. We also have markets, which I often visited with my mother. Strong, mahogany-colored men from the southwest sometimes visit these markets. We call these men Oye-Eboe, a term meaning red men living at a distance. They generally bring us firearms, gunpowder, hats, beads, and dried fish. We considered dried fish a great rarity, since our only waters were brooks and springs. The traders exchange these goods for fragrant woods and earth, and for our salt made from wood ashes. They always bring enslaved people through our land. But before the traders may pass, they must give a very strict account of how they obtained these people. Sometimes we did sell enslaved people to the traders. But those sold were only prisoners of war or people among us convicted of certain crimes. These crimes included kidnapping, adultery, and some others we considered terrible. This practice of kidnapping leads me to think that, despite all our strictness, the traders came mainly to abduct our people. I also remember that they carried large sacks. Not long afterward, I had the disastrous experience of seeing those sacks used for that shameful purpose.

Our land is uncommonly rich and fruitful, and produces all kinds of vegetables in great abundance. We have plenty of Indian corn, and vast quantities of cotton and tobacco. Our pine apples grow without culture; they are about the size of the largest sugar-loaf, and finely flavoured. We have also spices of different kinds, particularly pepper; and a variety of delicious fruits which I have never seen in Europe; together with gums of various kinds, and honey in abundance. All our industry is exerted to improve those blessings of nature. Agriculture is our chief employment; and every one, even the children and women, are engaged in it. Thus we are all habituated to labour from our earliest years. Every one contributes something to the common stock; and as we are unacquainted with idleness, we have no beggars. The benefits of such a mode of living are obvious. The West India planters prefer the slaves of Benin or Eboe to those of any other part of Guinea, for their hardiness, intelligence, integrity, and zeal. Those benefits are felt by us in the general healthiness of the people, and in their vigour and activity; I might have added too in their comeliness. Deformity is indeed unknown amongst us, I mean that of shape. Numbers of the natives of Eboe now in London might be brought in support of this assertion: for, in regard to complexion, ideas of beauty are wholly relative. I remember while in Africa to have seen three negro children, who were tawny, and another quite white, who were universally regarded by myself, and the natives in general, as far as related to their complexions, as deformed. Our women too were in my eyes at least uncommonly graceful, alert, and modest to a degree of bashfulness; nor do I remember to have ever heard of an instance of incontinence amongst them before marriage. They are also remarkably cheerful. Indeed cheerfulness and affability are two of the leading characteristics of our nation.

Our land is unusually rich and fertile, and produces all kinds of vegetables in great abundance. We have plenty of corn, and vast quantities of cotton and tobacco. Our pineapples grow without cultivation. They are about the size of the largest cone-shaped sugar loaf and have a fine flavor. We also have various spices, especially pepper, and a variety of delicious fruits I have never seen in Europe. We also have various kinds of gum and abundant honey. All our efforts go toward making the most of these gifts of nature. Farming is our main occupation, and everyone, even the children and women, takes part. So we all grow used to work from our earliest years. Everyone contributes something to our shared supplies. Since we know nothing of idleness, we have no beggars. The benefits of this way of life are obvious. West India plantation owners prefer enslaved people from Benin or Eboe to those from any other part of Guinea. This preference comes from their toughness, intelligence, honesty, and enthusiasm for work. We feel these benefits in our people's generally good health, strength, and activity. I might also have added their good looks. Physical deformity is indeed unknown among us. I mean deformity of body shape. Many natives of Eboe now in London could be presented as evidence for this claim. As for skin color, ideas of beauty are entirely relative. I remember seeing three Black children in Africa whose skin was tawny, and another whose skin was completely white. I and the local people generally all considered these children deformed as far as their skin color was concerned. Our women, too, were unusually graceful and energetic, at least in my eyes, and so modest they were shy. Nor do I remember ever hearing of a woman having sex before marriage. Our women are also remarkably cheerful. Indeed, cheerfulness and friendliness are two of our nation's leading characteristics.

Our tillage is exercised in a large plain or common, some hours walk from our dwellings, and all the neighbours resort thither in a body. They use no beasts of husbandry; and their only instruments are hoes, axes, shovels, and beaks, or pointed iron to dig with. Sometimes we are visited by locusts, which come in large clouds, so as to darken the air, and destroy our harvest. This however happens rarely, but when it does, a famine is produced by it. I remember an instance or two wherein this happened. This common is often the theatre of war; and therefore when our people go out to till their land, they not only go in a body, but generally take their arms with them for fear of a surprise; and when they apprehend an invasion they guard the avenues to their dwellings, by driving sticks into the ground, which are so sharp at one end as to pierce the foot, and are generally dipt in poison. From what I can recollect of these battles, they appear to have been irruptions of one little state or district on the other, to obtain prisoners or booty. Perhaps they were incited to this by those traders who brought the European goods I mentioned amongst us. Such a mode of obtaining slaves in Africa is common; and I believe more are procured this way, and by kidnapping, than any other^E. When a trader wants slaves, he applies to a chief for them, and tempts him with his wares. It is not extraordinary, if on this occasion he yields to the temptation with as little firmness, and accepts the price of his fellow creatures liberty with as little reluctance as the enlightened merchant. Accordingly he falls on his neighbours, and a desperate battle ensues. If he prevails and takes prisoners, he gratifies his avarice by selling them; but, if his party be vanquished, and he falls into the hands of the enemy, he is put to death: for, as he has been known to foment their quarrels, it is thought dangerous to let him survive, and no ransom can save him, though all other prisoners may be redeemed. We have fire-arms, bows and arrows, broad two-edged swords and javelins: we have shields also which cover a man from head to foot. All are taught the use of these weapons; even our women are warriors, and march boldly out to fight along with the men. Our whole district is a kind of militia: on a certain signal given, such as the firing of a gun at night, they all rise in arms and rush upon their enemy. It is perhaps something remarkable, that when our people march to the field a red flag or banner is borne before them. I was once a witness to a battle in our common. We had been all at work in it one day as usual, when our people were suddenly attacked. I climbed a tree at some distance, from which I beheld the fight. There were many women as well as men on both sides; among others my mother was there, and armed with a broad sword. After fighting for a considerable time with great fury, and after many had been killed our people obtained the victory, and took their enemy's Chief prisoner. He was carried off in great triumph, and, though he offered a large ransom for his life, he was put to death. A virgin of note among our enemies had been slain in the battle, and her arm was exposed in our market-place, where our trophies were always exhibited. The spoils were divided according to the merit of the warriors. Those prisoners which were not sold or redeemed we kept as slaves: but how different was their condition from that of the slaves in the West Indies! With us they do no more work than other members of the community, even their masters; their food, clothing and lodging were nearly the same as theirs, (except that they were not permitted to eat with those who were free-born); and there was scarce any other difference between them, than a superior degree of importance which the head of a family possesses in our state, and that authority which, as such, he exercises over every part of his household. Some of these slaves have even slaves under them as their own property, and for their own use.

We farm a large plain, or common, several hours’ walk from our homes. All the neighbours go there together. They use no farm animals. Their only tools are hoes, axes, shovels, and beaks, or pointed iron tools for digging. Sometimes locusts come in clouds so large that they darken the air and destroy our harvest. This rarely happens, but when it does, it causes a famine. I remember one or two such occasions. This common is often a battlefield. So when our people go out to farm, they go together and usually carry weapons against a surprise attack. When they fear an invasion, they guard the paths to their homes by driving sticks into the ground. These sticks have ends sharp enough to pierce a foot and are usually dipped in poison. From what I remember of these battles, they seem to have been raids by one small state or district against another. The purpose was to capture prisoners or seize goods. Perhaps the traders who brought the European goods I mentioned encouraged these raids. This way of obtaining slaves is common in Africa. I believe more slaves are obtained through these raids and kidnapping than through any other means^E. When a trader wants slaves, he asks a chief for them and tempts the chief with his goods. It is hardly surprising if the chief resists temptation no more firmly than the enlightened merchant. He accepts payment for his fellow human beings’ freedom with just as little reluctance. So the chief attacks his neighbours, and a desperate battle follows. If he wins and takes prisoners, he satisfies his greed by selling them. But if his side loses and the enemy captures him, he is put to death. Because he is known to have stirred up their conflicts, letting him live is considered dangerous. No ransom can save him, though all other prisoners may be freed for a ransom. We have firearms, bows and arrows, broad double-edged swords, and javelins. We also have shields that cover a man from head to foot. Everyone is taught to use these weapons. Even our women are warriors and march boldly into battle alongside the men. Our whole district is a kind of militia. At a particular signal, such as a gunshot at night, everyone takes up arms and rushes at the enemy. It is perhaps somewhat remarkable that a red flag or banner is carried before our people as they march into battle. I once witnessed a battle on our common. We had all been working there as usual one day when our people were suddenly attacked. I climbed a tree some distance away and watched the fighting from there. There were many women as well as men on both sides. My mother was among them, armed with a broad sword. The fighting continued fiercely for a long time, and many people were killed. After this, our people won and captured the enemy’s chief. They carried him away in great triumph. Though he offered a large ransom for his life, he was put to death. A prominent young virgin among our enemies had been killed in the battle. Her arm was displayed in our marketplace, where our trophies were always shown. The spoils were divided according to each warrior’s merit. We kept as slaves those prisoners who were neither sold nor freed for ransom. But how different their condition was from that of slaves in the West Indies! Among us, slaves do no more work than other members of the community, even their masters. Their food, clothing, and housing were nearly the same as their masters’. However, slaves were not allowed to eat with people who had been born free. There was hardly any other difference between slaves and their masters, apart from the family head’s higher standing in our society. As head of the family, he also had authority over every member of his household. Some of these slaves even own slaves themselves, as their own property and for their own use.

As to religion, the natives believe that there is one Creator of all things, and that he lives in the sun, and is girted round with a belt that he may never eat or drink; but, according to some, he smokes a pipe, which is our own favourite luxury. They believe he governs events, especially our deaths or captivity; but, as for the doctrine of eternity, I do not remember to have ever heard of it: some however believe in the transmigration of souls in a certain degree. Those spirits, which are not transmigrated, such as our dear friends or relations, they believe always attend them, and guard them from the bad spirits or their foes. For this reason they always before eating, as I have observed, put some small portion of the meat, and pour some of their drink, on the ground for them; and they often make oblations of the blood of beasts or fowls at their graves. I was very fond of my mother, and almost constantly with her. When she went to make these oblations at her mother's tomb, which was a kind of small solitary thatched house, I sometimes attended her. There she made her libations, and spent most of the night in cries and lamentations. I have been often extremely terrified on these occasions. The loneliness of the place, the darkness of the night, and the ceremony of libation, naturally awful and gloomy, were heightened by my mother's lamentations; and these, concuring with the cries of doleful birds, by which these places were frequented, gave an inexpressible terror to the scene.

As for religion, the local people believe there is one Creator of all things and that he lives in the sun. They believe he wears a belt around his waist so that he may never eat or drink. But some say he smokes a pipe, which is our own favorite luxury. They believe he controls events, especially our deaths or captivity. But I do not remember ever hearing about the doctrine of eternity. Some, however, believe to a certain extent that souls pass into other bodies. They believe spirits that do not pass into other bodies, such as our dear friends or relatives, always stay with them. These spirits protect them from evil spirits or enemies. For this reason, as I have noted, they always put a little food on the ground before eating. They also pour some of their drink on the ground for the spirits. They often offer the blood of animals or birds at their graves. I was very fond of my mother and was almost always with her. Sometimes I accompanied her when she went to make these offerings at her mother's tomb. The tomb was a kind of small, isolated house with a thatched roof. There she poured her drink offerings and spent most of the night crying and mourning. I was often extremely frightened on these occasions. The lonely place, the dark night, and the drink-offering ceremony were naturally solemn and gloomy. My mother's cries of grief made them even more so. Her cries mingled with those of mournful birds that often visited these places. Together, these sounds filled the scene with a terror beyond words.

We compute the year from the day on which the sun crosses the line, and on its setting that evening there is a general shout throughout the land; at least I can speak from my own knowledge throughout our vicinity. The people at the same time make a great noise with rattles, not unlike the basket rattles used by children here, though much larger, and hold up their hands to heaven for a blessing. It is then the greatest offerings are made; and those children whom our wise men foretel will be fortunate are then presented to different people. I remember many used to come to see me, and I was carried about to others for that purpose. They have many offerings, particularly at full moons; generally two at harvest before the fruits are taken out of the ground: and when any young animals are killed, sometimes they offer up part of them as a sacrifice. These offerings, when made by one of the heads of a family, serve for the whole. I remember we often had them at my father's and my uncle's, and their families have been present. Some of our offerings are eaten with bitter herbs. We had a saying among us to any one of a cross temper, 'That if they were to be eaten, they should be eaten with bitter herbs.'

We count the year from the day when the sun crosses the equator. At sunset that evening, a general shout rises throughout the land. At least, I know from my own experience that this happens throughout our area. At the same time, people make a great noise with rattles. These are like the basket rattles children use here, though much larger. The people raise their hands to heaven for a blessing. The greatest offerings are made then. Children whom our wise men predict will be fortunate are then presented to different people. I remember many people coming to see me, and I was carried around to others for that purpose. Our people make many offerings, especially at full moons. Usually, two offerings are made at harvest before the crops are taken from the ground. When young animals are killed, people sometimes offer part of them as a sacrifice. When one of the heads of a family makes these offerings, the offerings serve the whole family. I remember we often had offerings at my father's and my uncle's homes, with their families present. Some of our offerings are eaten with bitter herbs. We had a saying about anyone with a bad temper: 'If they were to be eaten, they should be eaten with bitter herbs.'

We practised circumcision like the Jews, and made offerings and feasts on that occasion in the same manner as they did. Like them also, our children were named from some event, some circumstance, or fancied foreboding at the time of their birth. I was named Olaudah, which, in our language, signifies vicissitude or fortune also, one favoured, and having a loud voice and well spoken. I remember we never polluted the name of the object of our adoration; on the contrary, it was always mentioned with the greatest reverence; and we were totally unacquainted with swearing, and all those terms of abuse and reproach which find their way so readily and copiously into the languages of more civilized people. The only expressions of that kind I remember were 'May you rot, or may you swell, or may a beast take you.'

We practised circumcision like the Jews, and made offerings and held feasts on those occasions just as they did. Like the Jews, we also named our children after events, circumstances, or imagined signs of their future at birth. I was named Olaudah, which in our language means changing fortunes or luck. The name also means someone who is favoured, has a loud voice, and speaks well. I remember that we never dishonoured the name of the being we worshipped. On the contrary, we always spoke that name with the greatest reverence. We knew nothing of swearing or all the insults and abusive expressions so readily and abundantly used by more civilized people. The only expressions of that kind I remember were 'May you rot, or may you swell, or may a beast take you.'

I have before remarked that the natives of this part of Africa are extremely cleanly. This necessary habit of decency was with us a part of religion, and therefore we had many purifications and washings; indeed almost as many, and used on the same occasions, if my recollection does not fail me, as the Jews. Those that touched the dead at any time were obliged to wash and purify themselves before they could enter a dwelling-house. Every woman too, at certain times, was forbidden to come into a dwelling-house, or touch any person, or any thing we ate. I was so fond of my mother I could not keep from her, or avoid touching her at some of those periods, in consequence of which I was obliged to be kept out with her, in a little house made for that purpose, till offering was made, and then we were purified.

I have already mentioned that the people of this part of Africa are extremely clean. For us, this essential habit of cleanliness was part of religion, so we had many purification rituals and washings. If I remember correctly, we had almost as many as the Jews, and used them on the same occasions. Anyone who touched the dead had to wash and purify themselves before entering a home. Every woman, too, was forbidden at certain times to enter a home, touch anyone, or touch anything we ate. I loved my mother so much that I could not stay away from her. Nor could I avoid touching her during some of those times. As a result, I had to stay outside with her in a little house built for that purpose. We stayed there until an offering was made, and then we were purified.

Though we had no places of public worship, we had priests and magicians, or wise men. I do not remember whether they had different offices, or whether they were united in the same persons, but they were held in great reverence by the people. They calculated our time, and foretold events, as their name imported, for we called them Ah-affoe-way-cah, which signifies calculators or yearly men, our year being called Ah-affoe. They wore their beards, and when they died they were succeeded by their sons. Most of their implements and things of value were interred along with them. Pipes and tobacco were also put into the grave with the corpse, which was always perfumed and ornamented, and animals were offered in sacrifice to them. None accompanied their funerals but those of the same profession or tribe. These buried them after sunset, and always returned from the grave by a different way from that which they went.

Though we had no places of public worship, we had priests and magicians, or wise men. I do not remember whether these were separate roles or whether the same people filled both. But the people held them in great respect. They kept track of time and predicted events, as their name suggested. We called them Ah-affoe-way-cah, meaning calculators or yearly men, because our year was called Ah-affoe. They wore beards, and when they died, their sons took their place. Most of their tools and valuable possessions were buried with them. Pipes and tobacco were also placed in the grave with the body, which was always perfumed and decorated. Animals were offered as sacrifices to them. Only people of the same profession or tribe attended their funerals. These people buried them after sunset and always returned from the grave by a different route from the one they took there.

These magicians were also our doctors or physicians. They practised bleeding by cupping; and were very successful in healing wounds and expelling poisons. They had likewise some extraordinary method of discovering jealousy, theft, and poisoning; the success of which no doubt they derived from their unbounded influence over the credulity and superstition of the people. I do not remember what those methods were, except that as to poisoning: I recollect an instance or two, which I hope it will not be deemed impertinent here to insert, as it may serve as a kind of specimen of the rest, and is still used by the negroes in the West Indies. A virgin had been poisoned, but it was not known by whom: the doctors ordered the corpse to be taken up by some persons, and carried to the grave. As soon as the bearers had raised it on their shoulders, they seemed seized with some^F sudden impulse, and ran to and fro unable to stop themselves. At last, after having passed through a number of thorns and prickly bushes unhurt, the corpse fell from them close to a house, and defaced it in the fall; and, the owner being taken up, he immediately confessed the poisoning^G.

These magicians were also our doctors or physicians. They drew blood by cupping and were very successful at healing wounds and removing poisons. They also had some extraordinary way of detecting jealousy, theft, and poisoning. Their success no doubt came from their unlimited influence over the people's willingness to believe and their superstitions. I do not remember those methods, except the one used to detect poisoning. I recall one or two examples, and I hope readers will not consider it out of place to include them here. These examples may give some idea of the other methods, and Black people in the West Indies still use this practice. A young virgin had been poisoned, but no one knew who had done it. The doctors ordered some people to lift the body and carry it to the grave. As soon as the bearers lifted the body onto their shoulders, they seemed overcome by some^F sudden impulse. They ran back and forth, unable to stop themselves. At last, after the bearers had passed unharmed through many thorns and prickly bushes, the body fell from their shoulders. It landed close to a house and damaged the house as it fell. The owner was arrested and immediately confessed to the poisoning^G.

The natives are extremely cautious about poison. When they buy any eatable the seller kisses it all round before the buyer, to shew him it is not poisoned; and the same is done when any meat or drink is presented, particularly to a stranger. We have serpents of different kinds, some of which are esteemed ominous when they appear in our houses, and these we never molest. I remember two of those ominous snakes, each of which was as thick as the calf of a man's leg, and in colour resembling a dolphin in the water, crept at different times into my mother's night-house, where I always lay with her, and coiled themselves into folds, and each time they crowed like a cock. I was desired by some of our wise men to touch these, that I might be interested in the good omens, which I did, for they were quite harmless, and would tamely suffer themselves to be handled; and then they were put into a large open earthen pan, and set on one side of the highway. Some of our snakes, however, were poisonous: one of them crossed the road one day when I was standing on it, and passed between my feet without offering to touch me, to the great surprise of many who saw it; and these incidents were accounted by the wise men, and therefore by my mother and the rest of the people, as remarkable omens in my favour.

The local people are extremely cautious about poison. Whenever they buy food, the seller kisses it on all sides in front of the buyer. This shows the buyer that the food is not poisoned. The same is done whenever food or drink is offered, especially to a stranger. We have different kinds of snakes. Some are considered signs of things to come when they appear in our houses, and we never harm these snakes. I remember two such snakes that entered my mother’s sleeping room at different times. Each was as thick as the calf of a man’s leg and resembled a dolphin in the water in color. I always slept in that room with her. The snakes coiled themselves up, and each crowed like a rooster. Some of our wise men asked me to touch the snakes so I could share in the good omens. I did so, for the snakes were quite harmless and calmly allowed themselves to be handled. Each snake was then put into a large, open earthenware pan and placed beside the main road. Some of our snakes, however, were poisonous. One crossed the road one day while I was standing on it. The snake passed between my feet without trying to touch me, greatly surprising many who saw it. The wise men considered these incidents remarkable signs of good fortune for me. Because of their judgment, my mother and the rest of the people thought so too.

Such is the imperfect sketch my memory has furnished me with of the manners and customs of a people among whom I first drew my breath. And here I cannot forbear suggesting what has long struck me very forcibly, namely, the strong analogy which even by this sketch, imperfect as it is, appears to prevail in the manners and customs of my countrymen and those of the Jews, before they reached the Land of Promise, and particularly the patriarchs while they were yet in that pastoral state which is described in Genesis—an analogy, which alone would induce me to think that the one people had sprung from the other. Indeed this is the opinion of Dr. Gill, who, in his commentary on Genesis, very ably deduces the pedigree of the Africans from Afer and Afra, the descendants of Abraham by Keturah his wife and concubine (for both these titles are applied to her). It is also conformable to the sentiments of Dr. John Clarke, formerly Dean of Sarum, in his Truth of the Christian Religion: both these authors concur in ascribing to us this original. The reasonings of these gentlemen are still further confirmed by the scripture chronology; and if any further corroboration were required, this resemblance in so many respects is a strong evidence in support of the opinion. Like the Israelites in their primitive state, our government was conducted by our chiefs or judges, our wise men and elders; and the head of a family with us enjoyed a similar authority over his household with that which is ascribed to Abraham and the other patriarchs. The law of retaliation obtained almost universally with us as with them: and even their religion appeared to have shed upon us a ray of its glory, though broken and spent in its passage, or eclipsed by the cloud with which time, tradition, and ignorance might have enveloped it; for we had our circumcision (a rule I believe peculiar to that people:) we had also our sacrifices and burnt-offerings, our washings and purifications, on the same occasions as they had.

This is the imperfect account my memory has provided of the customs and way of life of my birthplace. Here I cannot help mentioning a strong resemblance that has long struck me. Even this imperfect account shows similarities between my countrymen’s customs and those of the Jews before they reached the Land of Promise. The resemblance is especially strong with the patriarchs, who still lived the pastoral life described in Genesis. This resemblance alone would lead me to think that one people descended from the other. Indeed, Dr. Gill holds this opinion. In his commentary on Genesis, he very skillfully traces African ancestry to Afer and Afra. They were descendants of Abraham by Keturah, his wife and concubine (both titles are applied to her). This view also agrees with Dr. John Clarke’s views in his Truth of the Christian Religion. Dr. John Clarke was formerly Dean of Sarum. Both authors agree in tracing our origins to these ancestors. Biblical chronology further supports these scholars’ arguments. If further support were needed, the resemblance in so many respects provides strong evidence for this opinion. Like the early Israelites, we were governed by our chiefs or judges, our wise men and elders. Our heads of families also had authority over their households similar to that attributed to Abraham and the other patriarchs. The law of retaliation applied almost universally among us, as among them. Even their religion seemed to have cast a ray of its glory upon us. Yet that ray had weakened and faded on its journey. Or perhaps it was hidden by a cloud of time, tradition, and ignorance. For we practiced circumcision (a practice I believe was unique to that people). We also had sacrifices and burnt offerings, washings and purifications, on the same occasions as the Israelites.

As to the difference of colour between the Eboan Africans and the modern Jews, I shall not presume to account for it. It is a subject which has engaged the pens of men of both genius and learning, and is far above my strength. The most able and Reverend Mr. T. Clarkson, however, in his much admired Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, has ascertained the cause, in a manner that at once solves every objection on that account, and, on my mind at least, has produced the fullest conviction. I shall therefore refer to that performance for the theory^H, contenting myself with extracting a fact as related by Dr. Mitchel^I. "The Spaniards, who have inhabited America, under the torrid zone, for any time, are become as dark coloured as our native Indians of Virginia; of which I myself have been a witness." There is also another instance^J of a Portuguese settlement at Mitomba, a river in Sierra Leona; where the inhabitants are bred from a mixture of the first Portuguese discoverers with the natives, and are now become in their complexion, and in the woolly quality of their hair, perfect negroes, retaining however a smattering of the Portuguese language.

I will not presume to explain the difference in skin colour between the Eboan Africans and modern Jews. Writers of both genius and learning have explored the subject, and it is far beyond my abilities. However, the highly capable Reverend Mr. T. Clarkson has established the cause in his much-admired Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species. His explanation answers every objection on that point and, at least in my mind, is entirely convincing. I therefore refer readers to that work for the theory^H, and will simply quote a fact reported by Dr. Mitchel^I. "The Spaniards who have lived for any length of time in the tropical region of America have become darker. They are now as dark as our native Indians of Virginia. I myself have witnessed this." There is also another example^J at a Portuguese settlement at Mitomba, a river in Sierra Leona. The inhabitants descend from unions between the first Portuguese discoverers and the native people. Their skin colour and the woolly texture of their hair now make them entirely like black Africans. However, they still retain a little knowledge of the Portuguese language.

These instances, and a great many more which might be adduced, while they shew how the complexions of the same persons vary in different climates, it is hoped may tend also to remove the prejudice that some conceive against the natives of Africa on account of their colour. Surely the minds of the Spaniards did not change with their complexions! Are there not causes enough to which the apparent inferiority of an African may be ascribed, without limiting the goodness of God, and supposing he forbore to stamp understanding on certainly his own image, because "carved in ebony." Might it not naturally be ascribed to their situation? When they come among Europeans, they are ignorant of their language, religion, manners, and customs. Are any pains taken to teach them these? Are they treated as men? Does not slavery itself depress the mind, and extinguish all its fire and every noble sentiment? But, above all, what advantages do not a refined people possess over those who are rude and uncultivated. Let the polished and haughty European recollect that his ancestors were once, like the Africans, uncivilized, and even barbarous. Did Nature make them inferior to their sons? and should they too have been made slaves? Every rational mind answers, No. Let such reflections as these melt the pride of their superiority into sympathy for the wants and miseries of their sable brethren, and compel them to acknowledge, that understanding is not confined to feature or colour. If, when they look round the world, they feel exultation, let it be tempered with benevolence to others, and gratitude to God, "who hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth^K; and whose wisdom is not our wisdom, neither are our ways his ways."

These examples, and many more that could be given, show how the same people’s skin colour varies in different climates. It is hoped these examples may also help remove some people’s prejudice against Africans because of their colour. Surely the Spaniards’ minds did not change with their skin colour! Are there not enough causes to explain an African’s apparent inferiority without limiting God’s goodness? Must we suppose God withheld understanding from someone certainly made in his own image because that image was "carved in ebony." Might this apparent inferiority not naturally be explained by their circumstances? When Africans come among Europeans, they do not know the Europeans’ language, religion, manners, or customs. Is any effort made to teach Africans these things? Are Africans treated as human beings? Does not slavery itself crush the mind and put out all its fire and every noble feeling? But above all, what advantages do a refined people not have over those without education or a developed culture? Let the cultured and arrogant European remember that his ancestors were once, like the Africans, uncivilized and even barbarous. Did Nature make them inferior to their descendants? And should they too have been made slaves? Every reasonable mind answers, No. Let reflections like these soften Europeans’ pride in their superiority into sympathy for their black brothers’ needs and suffering. Let these reflections compel Europeans to acknowledge that understanding is not limited to any facial features or colour. If Europeans look around the world and feel triumphant, let kindness toward others and gratitude to God temper that feeling. For God is the one "who made all nations of humanity from one blood to live across the whole earth^K. His wisdom is not our wisdom, nor are our ways his ways."