The Great Learning

What the Great Learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence. The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end. Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning.

The Great Learning teaches us to reveal bright virtue, to renew the people, and to settle in the highest excellence. Once we know where to settle, we can set our goal. Once the goal is set, we may become calm and untroubled. That calmness will lead to peaceful rest. In that rest, we may think carefully, and careful thought will lead to reaching the desired goal. Things have roots and branches. Affairs have endings and beginnings. Knowing what comes first and what comes last brings us close to what the Great Learning teaches.

The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the kingdom, first ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their states, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their states were rightly governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy. From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything besides. It cannot be, when the root is neglected, that what should spring from it will be well ordered. It never has been the case that what was of great importance has been slightly cared for, and, at the same time, that what was of slight importance has been greatly cared for.

The ancients who wanted to make virtue shine throughout the kingdom first governed their own states well. To govern their states well, they first put their families in order. To put their families in order, they first developed their own character. To develop their character, they first set their hearts right. To set their hearts right, they first sought to make their thoughts sincere. To make their thoughts sincere, they first expanded their knowledge as fully as possible. Expanding their knowledge meant investigating things. Once they had investigated things, their knowledge became complete. Once their knowledge was complete, their thoughts became sincere. Once their thoughts were sincere, their hearts were set right. Once their hearts were set right, their character developed. Once their character had developed, their families were put in order. Once their families were in order, their states were governed well. Once their states were governed well, the whole kingdom became peaceful and happy. Everyone, from the Son of Heaven to the common people, must see personal development as the root of everything else. If the root is neglected, whatever grows from it cannot be well ordered. No one has ever given little care to matters of great importance while giving great care to minor matters.

What is meant by "making the thoughts sincere" is the allowing no self-deception, as when we hate a bad smell, and as when we love what is beautiful. This is called self-enjoyment. Therefore, the superior man must be watchful over himself when he is alone. There is no evil to which the mean man, dwelling retired, will not proceed, but when he sees a superior man, he instantly tries to disguise himself, concealing his evil, and displaying what is good. The other beholds him, as if he saw his heart and reins; of what use is his disguise? This is an instance of the saying "What truly is within will be manifested without." Therefore, the superior man must be watchful over himself when he is alone. The disciple Zeng said, "What ten eyes behold, what ten hands point to, is to be regarded with reverence!" Riches adorn a house, and virtue adorns the person. The mind is expanded, and the body is at ease. Therefore, the superior man must make his thoughts sincere.

To "make your thoughts sincere" means not deceiving yourself, just as you naturally hate a bad smell and love beauty. This is called being content with yourself. Therefore, a person of noble character must watch himself carefully when alone. There is no evil a person of low character will not commit in private. But when he sees a person of noble character, he immediately tries to hide his wrongdoing and show his goodness. The noble person sees him as if looking into his innermost thoughts and feelings. What use is his disguise? This illustrates the saying "What is truly inside will show on the outside." Therefore, a person of noble character must watch himself carefully when alone. The disciple Zeng said, "What ten eyes see and ten hands point to must be treated with deep respect!" Wealth beautifies a house, and virtue beautifies a person. The mind opens up, and the body is at ease. Therefore, a person of noble character must make his thoughts sincere.

In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "Look at that winding course of the Qi, with the green bamboos so luxuriant! Here is our elegant and accomplished prince! As we cut and then file; as we chisel and then grind: so has he cultivated himself. How grave is he and dignified! How majestic and distinguished! Our elegant and accomplished prince never can be forgotten." That expression – "As we cut and then file," indicates the work of learning. "As we chisel and then grind," indicates that of self-culture. "How grave is he and dignified!" indicates the feeling of cautious reverence. "How commanding and distinguished!" indicates an awe-inspiring deportment. "Our elegant and accomplished prince never can be forgotten," indicates how, when virtue is complete and excellence extreme, the people cannot forget them. In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "Ah! the former kings are not forgotten." Future princes deem worthy what they deemed worthy, and love what they loved. The common people delight in what delighted them, and are benefited by their beneficial arrangements. It is on this account that the former kings, after they have quitted the world, are not forgotten.

The Book of Poetry says, "Look at the winding course of the Qi, with its lush green bamboos! Here is our refined and accomplished prince! Just as we cut and then file, chisel and then polish, so has he worked to improve himself. How serious and dignified he is! How majestic and distinguished! Our refined and accomplished prince can never be forgotten." The phrase "Just as we cut and then file" refers to the work of learning. "Chisel and then polish" refers to the work of improving oneself. "How serious and dignified he is!" expresses a feeling of careful reverence. "How commanding and distinguished!" describes a bearing that inspires awe. "Our refined and accomplished prince can never be forgotten" means that people cannot forget someone whose virtue and excellence are complete. The Book of Poetry says, "Ah! The kings of the past are not forgotten." Later princes value what those kings valued and love what those kings loved. The common people enjoy what those kings enjoyed and benefit from the arrangements those kings made for their welfare. For these reasons, the kings of the past are not forgotten after their deaths.

In the Announcement to Kang, it is said, "He was able to make his virtue illustrious." In the Tai Jia, it is said, "He contemplated and studied the illustrious decrees of Heaven." In the Canon of the emperor (Yao), it is said, "He was able to make illustrious his lofty virtue." These passages all show how those sovereigns made themselves illustrious.

The Announcement to Kang says, "He was able to make his virtue shine." The Tai Jia says, "He reflected on and studied the glorious decrees of Heaven." The Canon of the emperor (Yao) says, "He was able to make his great virtue shine." These passages all show how those rulers made their own virtue shine.

On the bathing tub of Tang, the following words were engraved: "If you can one day renovate yourself, do so from day to day. Yea, let there be daily renovation." In the Announcement to Kang, it is said, "To stir up the new people." In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "Although Zhou was an ancient state the ordinance which lighted on it was new." Therefore, the superior man in everything uses his utmost endeavors.

These words were engraved on Tang's bathing tub: "If you can renew yourself for one day, keep doing so day after day. Yes, renew yourself daily." The Announcement to Kang says, "Inspire the people to renew themselves." The Book of Poetry says, "Although Zhou was an ancient state, the mandate granted to Zhou was new." Therefore, the person of noble character makes every effort in everything.

In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "The royal domain of a thousand li is where the people rest." In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "The twittering yellow bird rests on a corner of the mound." The Master said, "When it rests, it knows where to rest. Is it possible that a man should not be equal to this bird?" In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "Profound was King Wen. With how bright and unceasing a feeling of reverence did he regard his resting places!" As a sovereign, he rested in benevolence. As a minister, he rested in reverence. As a son, he rested in filial piety. As a father, he rested in kindness. In communication with his subjects, he rested in good faith.

The Book of Poetry says, "The royal lands, stretching a thousand li, are where the people find rest." The Book of Poetry says, "The chirping yellow bird rests on a corner of the mound." The Master said, "When the bird rests, it knows where to rest. Can a person really fall short of this bird?" The Book of Poetry says, "How profound King Wen was! How brightly and constantly his reverence shone in the places where he found rest!" As a ruler, he found rest in caring for others. As a minister, he found rest in respect. As a son, he found rest in devotion to his parents. As a father, he found rest in kindness. In dealing with his subjects, he found rest in good faith.

The Master said, "In hearing litigations, I am like any other body. What is necessary is to cause the people to have no litigations." So, those who are devoid of principle find it impossible to carry out their speeches, and a great awe would be struck into men's minds; this is called knowing the root.

The Master said, "When hearing legal disputes, I am like anyone else. What matters is to lead people to have no legal disputes." So, people without principles find themselves unable to press their claims, and people's minds would be filled with deep awe. This is called knowing the root.

What is meant by, "The cultivation of the person depends on rectifying the mind" may be thus illustrated: If a man be under the influence of passion, he will be incorrect in his conduct. He will be the same, if he is under the influence of terror, or under the influence of fond regard, or under that of sorrow and distress. When the mind is not present, we look and do not see; we hear and do not understand; we eat and do not know the taste of what we eat. This is what is meant by saying that the cultivation of the person depends on the rectifying of the mind.

The meaning of "Developing your character depends on setting your mind right" may be explained as follows. If a person is ruled by strong emotion, they will act wrongly. The same is true if they are ruled by fear, affection, or sorrow and distress. When the mind is elsewhere, we look but do not see. We hear but do not understand. We eat but do not know the taste of our food. This is what it means to say that developing your character depends on setting your mind right.

What is meant by "The regulation of one's family depends on the cultivation of his person" is this: Men are partial where they feel affection and love; partial where they despise and dislike; partial where they stand in awe and reverence; partial where they feel sorrow and compassion; partial where they are arrogant and rude. Thus it is that there are few men in the world who love and at the same time know the bad qualities of the object of their love, or who hate and yet know the excellences of the object of their hatred. Hence it is said, in the common adage, "A man does not know the wickedness of his son; he does not know the richness of his growing corn." This is what is meant by saying that if the person be not cultivated, a man cannot regulate his family.

The statement "Managing one's family depends on developing one's character" means the following: People are biased toward those they love and care for. They are biased against those they despise and dislike. They are biased toward those they regard with awe and respect. They are biased toward those they pity and feel compassion for. They are biased against those they treat arrogantly and rudely. So few people in the world love someone and still recognize that person's faults. Few hate someone and still recognize that person's good qualities. Hence the common saying, "A man does not see his son's wickedness. He does not see how richly his grain is growing." This is what it means to say that without developing his own character, a man cannot manage his family.

What is meant by "In order rightly to govern the state, it is necessary first to regulate the family," is this: It is not possible for one to teach others, while he cannot teach his own family. Therefore, the ruler, without going beyond his family, completes the lessons for the state. There is filial piety – therewith the sovereign should be served. There is fraternal submission – therewith elders and superiors should be served. There is kindness – therewith the multitude should be treated. In the Announcement to Kang, it is said, "Act as if you were watching over an infant." If a mother is really anxious about it, though she may not hit exactly the wants of her infant, she will not be far from doing so. There never has been a girl who learned to bring up a child, that she might afterwards marry. From the loving example of one family a whole state becomes loving, and from its courtesies the whole state becomes courteous while, from the ambition and perverseness of the One man, the whole state may be led to rebellious disorder; such is the nature of the influence. This verifies the saying, "Affairs may be ruined by a single sentence; a kingdom may be settled by its One man." Yao and Shun led on the kingdom with benevolence and the people followed them. Chieh and Chau led on the kingdom with violence, and people followed them. The orders which these issued were contrary to the practices which they loved, and so the people did not follow them. On this account, the ruler must himself be possessed of the good qualities, and then he may require them in the people. He must not have the bad qualities in himself, and then he may require that they shall not be in the people. Never has there been a man, who, not having reference to his own character and wishes in dealing with others, was able effectually to instruct them. Thus we see how the government of the state depends on the regulation of the family.

What does this mean: "To govern the state properly, you must first put your family in order"? It means that no one can teach others while unable to teach his own family. So the ruler teaches the state everything it needs without going beyond his family. The respect shown to parents is the respect owed to the sovereign. The deference shown to older brothers is the deference owed to elders and superiors. The kindness shown within the family is the kindness owed to the people. The Announcement to Kang says, "Act as if you were watching over an infant." If a mother truly cares for her infant, she may not meet the infant's needs exactly. But she will not fall far short. No girl has ever learned to raise a child so that she could later marry. One family's loving example makes a whole state loving, and its courtesy makes the whole state courteous. But one ruler's ambition and wrongdoing may lead the whole state into rebellion and disorder. Such is the power of example. This confirms the saying, "A single sentence may ruin affairs. One man may bring stability to a kingdom." Yao and Shun led the kingdom with kindness, and the people followed them. Chieh and Chau led the kingdom with violence, and the people followed them. These rulers' orders went against the conduct they themselves favored, so the people did not obey their orders. For this reason, a ruler must possess good qualities himself before he may demand them from the people. He must be free of bad qualities himself before he may demand that the people be free of them. No one has ever taught others effectively without considering his own character and wishes when dealing with them. So we see how governing the state depends on putting the family in order.

In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "That peach tree, so delicate and elegant! How luxuriant is its foliage! This girl is going to her husband's house. She will rightly order her household." Let the household be rightly ordered, and then the people of the state may be taught. In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "They can discharge their duties to their elder brothers. They can discharge their duties to their younger brothers." Let the ruler discharge his duties to his elder and younger brothers, and then he may teach the people of the state. In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "In his deportment there is nothing wrong; he rectifies all the people of the state." Yes; when the ruler, as a father, a son, and a brother, is a model, then the people imitate him. This is what is meant by saying, "The government of his kingdom depends on his regulation of the family."

The Book of Poetry says, "That peach tree, so delicate and graceful! How lush its leaves are! This girl is going to her husband's home. She will manage her household well." Let the household be managed well, and then the people of the state may be taught. The Book of Poetry says, "They can fulfill their duties to their older brothers. They can fulfill their duties to their younger brothers." Let the ruler fulfill his duties to his older and younger brothers. Then he may teach the people of the state. The Book of Poetry says, "There is nothing wrong in his conduct. He guides all the people of the state to act rightly." Yes, when the ruler sets an example as a father, a son, and a brother, the people imitate him. This is what is meant by saying, "Governing his kingdom depends on managing his family well."

What is meant by "The making the whole kingdom peaceful and happy depends on the government of his state," is this: When the sovereign behaves to his aged, as the aged should be behaved to, the people become filial; when the sovereign behaves to his elders, as the elders should be behaved to, the people learn brotherly submission; when the sovereign treats compassionately the young and helpless, the people do the same. Thus the ruler has a principle with which, as with a measuring square, he may regulate his conduct. What a man dislikes in his superiors, let him not display in the treatment of his inferiors; what he dislikes in inferiors, let him not display in the service of his superiors; what he hates in those who are before him, let him not therewith precede those who are behind him; what he hates in those who are behind him, let him not bestow on the left; what he hates to receive on the left, let him not bestow on the right. This is what is called "The principle with which, as with a measuring square, to regulate one's conduct." In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "How much to be rejoiced in are these princes, the parents of the people!" When a prince loves what the people love, and hates what the people hate, then is he what is called the parent of the people. In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "Lofty is that southern hill, with its rugged masses of rocks! Greatly distinguished are you, O grand-teacher Yin, the people all look up to you." Rulers of states may not neglect to be careful. If they deviate to a mean selfishness, they will be a disgrace in the kingdom.

The statement "Making the whole kingdom peaceful and happy depends on how the ruler governs his state" means this: When the ruler treats his aged relatives properly, the people learn to honor their parents. When the ruler treats his elders properly, the people learn to respect and obey their older brothers. When the ruler treats the young and helpless with compassion, the people do the same. Thus the ruler has a principle to guide his conduct, just as a measuring square guides a craftsman's work. Do not treat those below you in ways you dislike in those above you. Do not serve those above you in ways you dislike in those below you. Do not lead those behind you in ways you hate in those ahead of you. Do not treat those on your left in ways you hate in those behind you. Do not treat those on your right in ways you hate being treated by those on your left. This is called "The principle for guiding your conduct as with a measuring square." The Book of Poetry says, "What joy these princes bring, the parents of the people!" When a prince loves what the people love and hates what the people hate, he is called the people's parent. The Book of Poetry says, "That southern hill rises high, with its rugged masses of rock! You are greatly honored, grand-teacher Yin. The people all look up to you." Rulers of states must not fail to act carefully. If rulers stray into petty selfishness, they will be a disgrace throughout the kingdom.

In the Book of Poetry, it is said, "Before the sovereigns of the Yin dynasty had lost the hearts of the people, they could appear before God. Take warning from the house of Yin. The great decree is not easily preserved." This shows that, by gaining the people, the kingdom is gained, and, by losing the people, the kingdom is lost. On this account, the ruler will first take pains about his own virtue. Possessing virtue will give him the people. Possessing the people will give the territory. Possessing the territory will give him its wealth. Possessing wealth, he will have resources for expenditure. Virtue is the root; wealth is the result. If he makes the root his secondary object, and the result his primary, he will only wrangle with his people, and teach them rapine. Hence, the accumulation of wealth is the way to scatter the people; and the letting it be scattered among them is the way to collect the people. And hence, the ruler's words going forth contrary to right, will come back to him in the same way, and wealth, gotten by improper ways, will take its departure by the same. In the Announcement to Kang, it is said, "The decree indeed may not always rest on us"; that is, goodness obtains the decree, and the want of goodness loses it. In the Book of Chu, it is said, "The kingdom of Chu does not consider that to be valuable. It values, instead, its good men." Duke Wen's uncle, Fan, said, "Our fugitive does not account that to be precious. What he considers precious is the affection due to his parent."

The Book of Poetry says, "Before the rulers of the Yin dynasty lost the people's loyalty, they could appear before God. Take warning from the house of Yin. The great decree is not easy to keep." This shows that gaining the people means gaining the kingdom, and losing the people means losing the kingdom. For this reason, the ruler will first work to develop his own virtue. With virtue, he will gain the people. With the people, he will gain the territory. With the territory, he will gain its wealth. With wealth, he will have the resources to meet his expenses. Virtue is the root, and wealth is the result. If he puts the root second and the result first, he will only clash with his people. He will also teach them to plunder. So hoarding wealth drives the people away, while spreading wealth among them brings the people together. Likewise, a ruler's unjust words will be answered with unjust words. Wealth gained dishonestly will also be lost through dishonesty. The Announcement to Kang says, "The decree may indeed not always remain with us." This means that goodness gains the decree, and a lack of goodness loses it. The Book of Chu says, "The kingdom of Chu does not consider that valuable. Instead, it values its good men." Duke Wen's uncle, Fan, said, "Our fugitive does not consider that precious. What he considers precious is the affection he owes his parent."

In the Declaration of the Duke of Qin, it is said, "Let me have but one minister, plain and sincere, not pretending to other abilities, but with a simple, upright, mind; and possessed of generosity, regarding the talents of others as though he himself possessed them, and, where he finds accomplished and perspicacious men, loving them in his heart more than his mouth expresses, and really showing himself able to bear them and employ them: such a minister will be able to preserve my sons and grandsons and black-haired people, and benefits likewise to the kingdom may well be looked for from him. But if it be his character, when he finds men of ability, to be jealous and hate them; and, when he finds accomplished and perspicacious men, to oppose them and not allow their advancement, showing himself really not able to bear them: such a minister will not be able to protect my sons and grandsons and people; and may he not also be pronounced dangerous to the state?" It is only the truly virtuous man who can send away such a man and banish him, driving him out among the barbarous tribes around, determined not to dwell along with him in the Middle Kingdom. This is in accordance with the saying, "It is only the truly virtuous man who can love or who can hate others." To see men of worth and not be able to raise them to office; to raise them to office, but not to do so quickly: this is disrespectful. To see bad men and not be able to remove them; to remove them, but not to do so to a distance:-this is weakness. To love those whom men hate, and to hate those whom men love; this is to outrage the natural feeling of men. Calamities cannot fail to come down on him who does so. Thus we see that the sovereign has a great course to pursue. He must show entire self-devotion and sincerity to attain it, and by pride and extravagance he will fail of it.

The Declaration of the Duke of Qin says, "Let me have just one minister who is straightforward and sincere. Let him claim no other abilities, but have an honest, upright mind. Let him be generous, valuing others’ talents as though they were his own. When he finds capable, insightful men, let his love for them exceed what his words express. Let him show that he can truly accept them and put their abilities to use. Such a minister will be able to protect my sons, grandsons, and people. We may also reasonably expect him to benefit the kingdom. But suppose he is jealous of capable men and hates them. Suppose he opposes accomplished, insightful men and prevents their advancement, showing that he truly cannot accept them. Such a minister will not be able to protect my sons, grandsons, and people. May we not also call him a danger to the state?" Only a truly virtuous man can dismiss and banish such a minister. He drives the minister out among the surrounding barbarian tribes, determined not to share the Middle Kingdom with him. Such action agrees with the saying, "Only a truly virtuous man can love or hate others." To recognize worthy men but fail to appoint them to office is disrespectful. So is appointing them without acting quickly. To recognize bad men but fail to remove them is weakness. So is removing them without sending them far away. To love those whom people hate, and hate those whom people love, violates people’s natural feelings. Disaster will surely fall on anyone who does so. Thus, the ruler has a great path to follow. He must be wholly devoted and sincere to follow that path. Pride and extravagance will cause him to fail.

There is a great course also for the production of wealth. Let the producers be many and the consumers few. Let there be activity in the production, and economy in the expenditure. Then the wealth will always be sufficient. The virtuous ruler, by means of his wealth, makes himself more distinguished. The vicious ruler accumulates wealth, at the expense of his life. Never has there been a case of the sovereign loving benevolence, and the people not loving righteousness. Never has there been a case where the people have loved righteousness, and the affairs of the sovereign have not been carried to completion. And never has there been a case where the wealth in such a state, collected in the treasuries and arsenals, did not continue in the sovereign's possession.

There is also a sound way to create wealth. Let there be many producers and few consumers. Let people work hard to produce wealth and spend carefully. Then there will always be enough wealth. A virtuous ruler uses his wealth to gain greater honor. A wicked ruler piles up wealth at the cost of his life. There has never been a ruler who loved kindness whose people did not love doing what is right. Whenever the people have loved doing what is right, the ruler’s affairs have always been brought to completion. And in such a state, the wealth stored in treasuries and arsenals has always remained in the ruler’s possession.

The officer Meng Xian said, "He who keeps horses and a carriage does not look after fowls and pigs. The family which keeps its stores of ice does not rear cattle or sheep. So, the house which possesses a hundred chariots should not keep a minister to look out for imposts that he may lay them on the people. Rather than to have such a minister, it were better for that house to have one who should rob it of its revenues." This is in accordance with the saying: "In a state, pecuniary gain is not to be considered to be prosperity, but its prosperity will be found in righteousness." When he who presides over a state or a family makes his revenues his chief business, he must be under the influence of some small, mean man. He may consider this man to be good; but when such a person is employed in the administration of a state or family, calamities from Heaven, and injuries from men, will befall it together, and, though a good man may take his place, he will not be able to remedy the evil. This illustrates again the saying, "In a state, gain is not to be considered prosperity, but its prosperity will be found in righteousness."

The official Meng Xian said, "Someone who keeps horses and a carriage does not tend chickens and pigs. A family that keeps stores of ice does not raise cattle or sheep. So, a household with a hundred chariots should not employ a minister to find taxes to impose on the people. Rather than employ such a minister, the household would be better off with one who stole its revenues." This agrees with the saying: "A state's prosperity lies not in financial gain, but in righteousness." When the head of a state or household makes revenue his main concern, he must be influenced by some petty, mean-spirited man. He may consider this man good. But when such a man helps govern a state or household, disasters from Heaven and harm from people will strike together. Even if a good man replaces him, the good man will not be able to undo the damage. This again illustrates the saying, "A state's prosperity lies not in financial gain, but in righteousness."