Envy

Next to worry probably one of the most potent causes of unhappiness is envy. Envy is, I should say, one of the most universal and deep-seated of human passions. It is very noticeable in children before they are a year old, and has to be treated with the most tender respect by every educator. The very slightest appearance of favouring one child at the expense of another is instantly observed and resented. Distributive justice, absolute, rigid, and unvarying, must be observed by anyone who has children to deal with. But children are only slightly more open in their expressions of envy, and of jealousy (which is a special form of envy), than are grown-up people. The emotion is just as prevalent among adults as among children. Take, for example, maid-servants: I remember when one of our maids, who was a married woman, became pregnant, and we said that she was not to be expected to lift heavy weights, the instant result was that none of the others would lift heavy weights, and any work of that sort that needed doing we had to do ourselves. Envy is the basis of democracy. Heraclitus asserts that the citizens of Ephesus ought all to be hanged because they said, “There shall be none first among us”. The democratic movement in Greek States must have been almost wholly inspired by this passion. And the same is true of modern democracy. There is, it is true, an idealistic theory according to which democracy is the best form of government. I think myself that this theory is true. But there is no department of practical politics where idealistic theories are strong enough to cause great changes; when great changes occur, the theories which justify them are always a camouflage for passion. And the passion that has given driving force to democratic theories is undoubtedly, the passion of envy. Read the memoirs of Madame Roland, who is frequently represented as a noble woman inspired by devotion to the people. You will find that what made her such a vehement democrat was the experience of being shown into the servants’ hall when she had occasion to visit an aristocratic château.

After worry, envy is probably one of the strongest causes of unhappiness. I would say envy is one of the most universal and deeply rooted human passions. It is very noticeable in children before they are a year old. Every educator must handle it with the greatest sensitivity and care. Children instantly notice and resent even the slightest sign of favoring one child over another. Anyone dealing with children must distribute things fairly, with absolute, strict, and unchanging consistency. But children are only slightly more open than adults in expressing envy and jealousy. Jealousy is a special form of envy. Envy is just as common among adults as among children. Take household maids, for example. I remember when one of our maids, a married woman, became pregnant. We said she should not be expected to lift heavy weights. Immediately, none of the other maids would lift heavy weights either. We had to do any such work ourselves. Envy is the basis of democracy. Heraclitus declares that the citizens of Ephesus ought all to be hanged because they said, “There shall be none first among us”. The democratic movement in the Greek states must have been inspired almost entirely by envy. And the same is true of modern democracy. There is, admittedly, an idealistic theory that democracy is the best form of government. I myself think this theory is true. But nowhere in practical politics are idealistic theories strong enough to bring about great changes. When great changes occur, the theories used to justify those changes are always a cover for passion. And the passion that has driven democratic theories is undoubtedly envy. Read the memoirs of Madame Roland, who is often portrayed as a noble woman devoted to the people. You will find that she became such a fierce democrat because of one experience. When she had reason to visit an aristocratic château, she was shown into the servants’ hall.

Among average respectable women envy plays an extraordinarily large part. If you are sitting in the Underground and a well-dressed woman happens to walk along the car, watch the eyes of the other women. You will see that every one of them, with the possible exception of those who are even better dressed, will watch the woman with malevolent glances, and will be struggling to draw inferences derogatory to her. The love of scandal is an expression of this general malevolence: any story against another woman is instantly believed, even on the flimsiest evidence. A lofty morality serves the same purpose: those who have a chance to sin against it are envied, and it is considered virtuous to punish them for their sins. This particular form of virtue is certainly its own reward.

Envy plays an extraordinarily large part among ordinary, respectable women. If you are sitting in the Underground and a well-dressed woman walks through the carriage, watch the other women’s eyes. Every one of them will watch her with hostile looks, except perhaps those who are even better dressed. They will struggle to find reasons to think badly of her. The love of scandal expresses this widespread ill will. Any story against another woman is instantly believed, even on the flimsiest evidence. High moral standards serve the same purpose. Women who have a chance to break those standards are envied. Punishing them for their sins is considered virtuous. This particular kind of virtue is certainly its own reward.

Exactly the same thing, however, is to be observed among men, except that women regard all other women as their competitors, whereas men as a rule only have this feeling towards other men in the same profession. Have you, reader, ever been so imprudent as to praise an artist to another artist? Have you ever praised a politician to another politician of the same party? Have you ever praised an Egyptologist to another Egyptologist? If you have, it is a hundred to one that you will have produced an explosion of jealousy. In the correspondence of Leibniz and Huyghens there are a number of letters lamenting the supposed fact that Newton had become insane. “Is it not sad”, they write to each other, “that the incomparable genius of Mr. Newton should have become overclouded by the loss of reason?” And these two eminent men, in one letter after another, wept crocodile tears with obvious relish. As a matter of fact, the event which they were hypocritically lamenting had not taken place, though a few examples of eccentric behaviour had given rise to the rumour.

Yet exactly the same thing can be seen among men. The difference is that women see all other women as competitors. Men generally feel this way only about other men in the same profession. Have you, reader, ever been unwise enough to praise an artist to another artist? Have you ever praised a politician to another politician of the same party? Have you ever praised an Egyptologist to another Egyptologist? If you have, the odds are a hundred to one that you triggered an explosion of jealousy. In their correspondence, Leibniz and Huyghens wrote several letters lamenting the supposed fact that Newton had gone insane. “Isn’t it sad,” they write to each other, “that Mr. Newton’s incomparable genius should have been clouded by madness?” And in letter after letter, these two distinguished men shed crocodile tears with obvious pleasure. In fact, the event they were so hypocritically mourning had not happened. A few instances of eccentric behavior, however, had started the rumor.

Of all the characteristics of ordinary human nature envy is the most unfortunate; not only does the envious person wish to inflict misfortune and do so whenever he can with impunity, but he is also himself rendered unhappy by envy. Instead of deriving pleasure from what he has, he derives pain from what others have. If he can, he deprives others of their advantages, which to him is as desirable as it would be to secure the same advantages himself. If this passion is allowed to run riot it becomes fatal to all excellence, and even to the most useful exercise of exceptional skill. Why should a medical man go to see his patients in a car when the labourer has to walk to his work? Why should the scientific investigator be allowed to spend his time in a warm room when others have to face the inclemency of the elements? Why should a man who possesses some rare talent of great importance to the world be saved from the drudgery of his own house-work? To such questions envy finds no answer. Fortunately, however, there is in human nature a compensating passion, namely that of admiration. Whoever wishes to increase human happiness must wish to increase admiration and to diminish envy.

Of all the traits in ordinary human nature, envy is the most unfortunate. Envious people wish to bring misfortune on others and do so whenever they can without facing consequences. But envy also makes envious people unhappy. Instead of enjoying what they have, they feel pain at what others have. If they can, they take away other people’s advantages. To envious people, taking those advantages away is as desirable as gaining the same advantages themselves. If envy is allowed to run unchecked, it destroys all excellence, even the most useful applications of exceptional skill. Why should a doctor visit patients by car when a labourer has to walk to work? Why should a scientific researcher be allowed to work in a warm room when others must face harsh weather? Why should someone with a rare talent of great importance to the world be spared the drudgery of housework? Envy has no answer to such questions. Fortunately, however, human nature has another passion that balances envy: admiration. Anyone who wants to increase human happiness must want to increase admiration and reduce envy.

What cure is there for envy? For the saint there is the cure of selflessness, though even in the case of saints envy of other saints is by no means impossible. I doubt whether St. Simeon Stylites would have been wholly pleased if he had learnt of some other saint who had stood even longer on an even narrower pillar. But, leaving saints out of account, the only cure for envy in the case of ordinary men and women is happiness, and the difficulty is that envy is itself a terrible obstacle to happiness. I think envy is immensely promoted by misfortunes in childhood. The child who finds a brother or sister preferred before himself acquires the habit of envy, and when he goes out into the world looks for injustices of which he is the victim, perceives them at once if they occur, and imagines them if they do not. Such a man is inevitably unhappy, and becomes a nuisance to his friends, who cannot be always remembering to avoid imaginary slights. Having begun by believing that no one likes him, he at last by his behaviour makes his belief true. Another misfortune in childhood which has the same result is to have parents without much parental feeling. Without having an unduly favoured brother or sister, a child may perceive that the children in other families are more loved by their mother and father than he is. This will cause him to hate the other children and his own parents, and when he grows up he will feel himself an Ishmael. Some kinds of happiness are everyone’s natural birthright, and to be deprived of them is almost inevitably to become warped and embittered.

What cure is there for envy? For saints, the cure is selflessness, though even saints can envy other saints. I doubt St. Simeon Stylites would have been entirely pleased to hear of another saint’s greater achievement. What if that saint had stood even longer on an even narrower pillar? But, leaving saints aside, happiness is the only cure for envy in ordinary men and women. The difficulty is that envy itself is a terrible obstacle to happiness. I think childhood misfortunes greatly encourage envy. A child who sees a brother or sister being favored develops a habit of envy. On entering the wider world, the child looks for injustices directed against them. They notice injustices at once when they happen and imagine injustices when none occur. Such a person is inevitably unhappy and becomes a nuisance to friends. Friends cannot always remember to avoid imaginary slights. The person begins by believing that no one likes them. Eventually, their behavior makes that belief come true. Another childhood misfortune with the same result is having parents who feel little affection for their children. Even without a favored brother or sister, a child may notice that other children receive more love from their parents. This lack of love will make the child hate the other children and their own parents. On growing up, the child will feel like an Ishmael, an outcast. Some kinds of happiness are everyone’s natural birthright. Being denied those kinds of happiness almost inevitably leaves a person emotionally damaged and bitter.

But the envious man may say: “What is the good of telling me that the cure for envy is happiness? I cannot find happiness while I continue to feel envy, and you tell me that I cannot cease to be envious until I find happiness.” But real life is never so logical as this. Merely to realize the causes of one’s own envious feelings is to take a long step towards curing them. The habit of thinking in terms of comparisons is a fatal one. When anything pleasant occurs it should be enjoyed to the full, without stopping to think that it is not so pleasant as something else that may possibly be happening to someone else. “Yes,” says the envious man, “this is a sunny day, and it is springtime, and the birds are singing, and the flowers are in bloom, but I understand that the springtime in Sicily is a thousand times more beautiful, that the birds sing more exquisitely in the groves of Helicon, and that the rose of Sharon is more lovely than any in my garden.” And as he thinks these thoughts the sun is dimmed, and the birds’ song becomes a meaningless twitter, and the flowers seem not worth a moment’s regard. All the other joys of life he treats in the same way. “Yes,” he will say to himself, “the lady of my heart is lovely, I love her and she loves me, but how much more exquisite must have been the Queen of Sheba! Ah, if I had but had Solomon’s opportunities!” All such comparisons are pointless and foolish; whether the Queen of Sheba or our next-door neighbour be the cause of discontent, either is equally futile. With the wise man, what he has does not cease to be enjoyable because someone else has something else. Envy, in fact, is one form of a vice, partly moral, partly intellectual, which consists in seeing things never in themselves, but only in their relations. I am earning, let us say, a salary sufficient for my needs. I should be content, but I hear that someone else whom I believe to be in no way my superior is earning a salary twice as great as mine. Instantly, if I am of an envious disposition, the satisfactions to be derived from what I have grow dim, and I begin to be eaten up with a sense of injustice. For all this the proper cure is mental discipline, the habit of not thinking profitless thoughts. After all, what is more enviable than happiness? And if I can cure myself of envy I can acquire happiness and become enviable. The man who has double my salary is doubtless tortured by the thought that someone else in turn has twice as much as he has, and so it goes on. If you desire glory, you may envy Napoleon. But Napoleon envied Cæsar, Cæsar envied Alexander, and Alexander, I daresay, envied Hercules, who never existed. You cannot, therefore, get away from envy by means of success alone, for there will always be in history or legend some person even more successful than you are. You can get away from envy by enjoying the pleasures that come your way, by doing the work that you have to do, and by avoiding comparisons with those whom you imagine, perhaps quite falsely, to be more fortunate than yourself.

But the envious person may say: “What good does it do to tell me that happiness cures envy? I cannot find happiness while I still feel envy. And you tell me I cannot stop feeling envy until I find happiness.” But real life is never as logical as that. Simply understanding the causes of your own envy is a big step toward overcoming it. The habit of making comparisons is disastrous. When something pleasant happens, enjoy it fully. Do not stop to think that something even more pleasant may be happening to someone else. “Yes,” says the envious person, “the day is sunny, it is springtime, the birds are singing, and the flowers are blooming. But I understand that springtime in Sicily is a thousand times more beautiful. The birds sing more beautifully in the groves of Helicon. And the rose of Sharon is lovelier than any rose in my garden.” As he thinks these thoughts, the sun grows dim, the birds’ song becomes meaningless twittering, and the flowers seem unworthy of even a moment’s attention. He treats all the other joys of life in the same way. “Yes,” he will tell himself, “the woman I love is lovely. I love her, and she loves me. But how much more beautiful the Queen of Sheba must have been! Ah, if only I had had Solomon’s opportunities!” All such comparisons are pointless and foolish. Whether the Queen of Sheba or our next-door neighbour causes our discontent, the comparison is equally useless. A wise person does not stop enjoying what he has because someone else has something else. Envy is, in fact, one form of a failing that is partly moral and partly intellectual. This failing means never seeing things in themselves, but only in relation to other things. Suppose I earn enough to meet my needs. I should be content. But I hear that someone I believe is no better than me earns twice as much as I do. If I am prone to envy, I immediately find less satisfaction in what I have. And I begin to feel consumed by a sense of injustice. The right cure for all this envy is mental discipline: the habit of avoiding useless thoughts. After all, what is more enviable than happiness? And if I can overcome my envy, I can become happy and make others envy me. The person earning twice my salary is no doubt tormented because someone else earns twice as much as he does. And so it goes on. If you want glory, you may envy Napoleon. But Napoleon envied Cæsar, Cæsar envied Alexander, and Alexander, I dare say, envied Hercules, who never existed. So success alone cannot free you from envy. There will always be someone in history or legend even more successful than you. You can free yourself from envy by enjoying the pleasures that come your way and doing the work you must do. You can also avoid comparing yourself with people you imagine, perhaps quite wrongly, are more fortunate than you.

Unnecessary modesty has a great deal to do with envy. Modesty is considered a virtue, but for my part I am very doubtful whether, in its more extreme forms, it deserves to be so regarded. Modest people need a great deal of reassuring, and often do not dare to attempt tasks which they are quite capable of performing. Modest people believe themselves to be outshone by those with whom they habitually associate. They are therefore particularly prone to envy, and, through envy, to unhappiness and illwill. For my part, I think there is much to be said for bringing up a boy to think himself a fine fellow. I do not believe that any peacock envies another peacock his tail, because every peacock is persuaded that his own tail is the finest in the world. The consequence of this is that peacocks are peaceable birds. Imagine how unhappy the life of a peacock would be if he had been taught that it is wicked to have a good opinion of oneself. Whenever he saw another peacock spreading out his tail, he would say to himself: “I must not imagine that my tail is better than that, for that would be conceited, but oh, how I wish it were! That odious bird is so convinced of his own magnificence! Shall I pull out some of his feathers? And then perhaps I need no longer fear comparison with him.” Or perhaps he would lay a trap for him, and prove that he was a wicked peacock who had been guilty of unpeacockly behaviour, and he would denounce him to the assembly of the leaders. Gradually he would establish the principle that peacocks with specially fine tails are almost always wicked, and that the wise ruler in the peacock kingdom would seek out the humble bird with only a few draggled tail feathers. Having got this principle accepted, he would get all the finest birds put to death, and in the end a really splendid tail will become only a dim memory of the past. Such is the victory of envy masquerading as morality. But where every peacock thinks himself more splendid than any of the others, there is no need for all this repression. Each peacock expects to win the first prize in the competition, and each, because he values his own peahen, believes that he has done so.

Unnecessary modesty has a lot to do with envy. Modesty is considered a virtue, but I seriously doubt whether its more extreme forms deserve that praise. Modest people need a lot of reassurance. They often do not dare to try tasks they are perfectly capable of doing. Modest people believe that those they regularly spend time with outshine them. So they are especially prone to envy, and envy leads them to unhappiness and hostility. For my part, I think there is much to be said for raising a boy to think well of himself. I do not believe that any peacock envies another peacock’s tail. Every peacock is convinced that his own tail is the finest in the world. As a result, peacocks are peaceful birds. Imagine how unhappy a peacock’s life would be if he had been taught that thinking well of himself was wicked. Whenever he saw another peacock spreading his tail, he would say to himself: “I must not imagine my tail is better than his, because that would be conceited. But oh, how I wish it were! That awful bird is so convinced of his own magnificence! Shall I pull out some of his feathers? Then perhaps I would no longer have to fear being compared with him.” Or perhaps he would set a trap for the other peacock. He would prove that his rival was a wicked peacock, guilty of unpeacockly behaviour. Then he would report him to the assembled leaders. Gradually, he would establish the principle that peacocks with especially fine tails are almost always wicked. A wise ruler in the peacock kingdom would therefore seek out a humble bird with only a few bedraggled tail feathers. Once this principle was accepted, he would have all the finest birds put to death. In the end, a truly splendid tail would become only a dim memory of the past. Such is the victory of envy disguised as morality. But where every peacock thinks himself more splendid than any of the others, none of this repression is needed. Each peacock expects to win first prize in the competition. And each believes he has won, because he values his own peahen.

Envy is, of course, closely connected with competition. We do not envy a good fortune which we conceive as quite hopelessly out of our reach. In an age when the social hierarchy is fixed, the lowest classes do not envy the upper classes so long as the division between rich and poor is thought to be ordained by God. Beggars do not envy millionaires, though of course they will envy other beggars who are more successful. The instability of social status in the modern world, and the equalitarian doctrines of democracy and socialism, have greatly extended the range of envy. For the moment this is an evil, but it is an evil which must be endured in order to arrive at a more just social system. As soon as inequalities are thought about rationally they are seen to be unjust unless they rest upon some superiority of merit. And as soon as they are seen to be unjust, there is no remedy for the resulting envy except the removal of the injustice. Our age is therefore one in which envy plays a peculiarly large part. The poor envy the rich, the poorer nations envy the richer nations, women envy men, virtuous women envy those who, though not virtuous, remain unpunished. While it is true that envy is the chief motive force leading to justice as between different classes, different nations, and different sexes, it is at the same time true that the kind of justice to be expected as a result of envy is likely to be the worst possible kind, namely that which consists rather in diminishing the pleasures of the fortunate than in increasing those of the unfortunate. Passions which work havoc in private life work havoc in public life also. It is not to be supposed that out of something as evil as envy good results will flow. Those, therefore, who from idealistic reasons desire profound changes in our social system, and a great increase of social justice, must hope that other forces than envy will be instrumental in bringing the changes about.

Envy is, of course, closely connected with competition. We do not envy good fortune that we see as completely beyond our reach. When social ranks are fixed, the lowest classes do not envy the upper classes under one condition. They must believe that God has ordained the division between rich and poor. Beggars do not envy millionaires, though of course they envy other beggars who are more successful. In the modern world, social status is unstable, and democracy and socialism teach equality. These changes have greatly widened the range of envy. For now, this increased envy is an evil. But we must endure this evil to achieve a fairer social system. As soon as we think rationally about inequalities, we see them as unjust unless they reflect greater merit. And once we see inequalities as unjust, only removing the injustice can remedy the resulting envy. Our age is therefore one in which envy plays an unusually large role. The poor envy the rich, poorer nations envy richer nations, and women envy men. Women who follow sexual moral standards envy women who break those standards but go unpunished. Envy is the main driving force behind justice between different classes, nations, and sexes. Yet the justice that envy is likely to produce is the worst possible kind. Such justice reduces the pleasures of the fortunate rather than increasing those of the unfortunate. Emotions that cause havoc in private life also cause havoc in public life. We should not expect good results from something as evil as envy. So people who, for idealistic reasons, want deep changes in our social system and much greater social justice face a necessity. They must hope that forces other than envy will help bring those changes about.

All bad things are interconnected, and any one of them is liable to be the cause of any other; more particularly fatigue is a very frequent cause of envy. When a man feels inadequate to the work he has to do, he feels a general discontent which is exceedingly liable to take the form of envy towards those whose work is less exacting. One of the ways of diminishing envy, therefore, is to diminish fatigue. But by far the most important thing is to secure a life which is satisfying to instinct. Much envy that seems purely professional really has a sexual source. A man who is happy in his marriage and his children is not likely to feel much envy of other men because of their greater wealth or success, so long as he has enough to bring up his children in what he feels to be the right way. The essentials of human happiness are simple, so simple that sophisticated people cannot bring themselves to admit what it is they really lack. The women we spoke of earlier who look with envy on every well-dressed woman are, one may be sure, not happy in their instinctive life. Instinctive happiness is rare in the English-speaking world, especially among women. Civilization in this respect appears to have gone astray. If there is to be less envy, means must be found for remedying this state of affairs, and if no such means are found our civilization is in danger of going down to destruction in an orgy of hatred. In old days people only envied their neighbours, because they knew little about anyone else. Now through education and the Press they know much in an abstract way about large classes of mankind of whom no single individual is among their acquaintance. Through the movies they think they know how the rich live, through the newspapers they know much of the wickedness of foreign nations, through propaganda they know of the nefarious practices of all whose skin has a pigmentation different from their own. Yellows hate whites, whites hate blacks, and so on. All this hatred, you may say, is stirred up by propaganda, but this is a somewhat shallow explanation. Why is propaganda so much more successful when it stirs up hatred than when it tries to stir up friendly feeling? The reason is clearly that the human heart as modern civilization has made it is more prone to hatred than to friendship. And it is prone to hatred because it is dissatisfied, because it feels deeply, perhaps even unconsciously, that it has somehow missed the meaning of life, that perhaps others, but not we ourselves, have secured the good things which nature offers for man’s enjoyment. The positive sum of pleasures in a modern man’s life is undoubtedly greater than was to be found in more primitive communities, but the consciousness of what might be has increased even more. Whenever you happen to take your children to the Zoo you may observe in the eyes of the apes, when they are not performing gymnastic feats or cracking nuts, a strange strained sadness. One can almost imagine that they feel they ought to become men, but cannot discover the secret of how to do it. On the road of evolution they have lost their way; their cousins marched on and they were left behind. Something of the same strain and anguish seems to have entered the soul of civilized man. He knows there is something better than himself almost within his grasp, yet he does not know where to seek it or how to find it. In despair he rages against his fellow man, who is equally lost and equally unhappy. We have reached a stage in evolution which is not the final stage. We must pass through it quickly, for if we do not, most of us will perish by the way, and the others will be lost in a forest of doubt and fear. Envy therefore, evil as it is, and terrible as are its effects, is not wholly of the devil. It is in part the expression of an heroic pain, the pain of those who walk through the night blindly, perhaps to a better resting-place, perhaps only to death and destruction. To find the right road out of this despair civilized man must enlarge his heart as he has enlarged his mind. He must learn to transcend self, and in so doing to acquire the freedom of the Universe.

All bad things are connected, and any one of them may cause any other. In particular, tiredness very often causes envy. When a man feels unable to handle his work, he feels generally dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction can very easily become envy of people whose work is less demanding. So one way to reduce envy is to reduce tiredness. But by far the most important thing is to build a life that satisfies our natural instincts. Much envy that seems purely professional actually has its roots in sex. A man happy with his marriage and children is unlikely to envy other men much for their greater wealth or success. This holds as long as he has enough to raise his children in the way he thinks right. The essentials of human happiness are simple. They are so simple that sophisticated people cannot bring themselves to admit what they really lack. We spoke earlier of women who envy every well-dressed woman they see. We can be sure these women are not happy in their instinctive lives. Happiness in this part of life is rare in the English-speaking world, especially among women. In this respect, civilization seems to have gone astray. If envy is to decrease, we must find ways to put this situation right. If we find none, our civilization risks destroying itself in an orgy of hatred. In the past, people envied only their neighbours because they knew little about anyone else. Now education and the press give people considerable abstract knowledge about large groups of humanity. Yet they do not know a single person in those groups. Through movies, they think they know how the rich live. Through newspapers, they learn much about the wickedness of foreign nations. Through propaganda, they learn about the evil practices of everyone whose skin colour differs from their own. Asian people hate white people, white people hate black people, and so on. You may say that propaganda stirs up all this hatred, but that explanation is rather shallow. Why is propaganda so much more successful at stirring up hatred than at encouraging friendship? Clearly, modern civilization has made the human heart more inclined to hatred than to friendship. The heart leans towards hatred because it is dissatisfied. People feel deeply, perhaps even unconsciously, that they have somehow missed the meaning of life. They feel that perhaps others, but not they themselves, have gained the good things nature offers for human enjoyment. The total amount of pleasure in a modern person's life is undoubtedly greater than in more primitive communities. But awareness of what life could offer has grown even more. Whenever you take your children to the Zoo, you may notice a strange, tense sadness in the apes' eyes. You can see this when they are not performing acrobatics or cracking nuts. You can almost imagine they feel they ought to become human but cannot discover how. They have lost their way along the path of evolution. Their cousins moved ahead, and they were left behind. Something of the same tension and anguish seems to have entered the soul of civilized humanity. Civilized people know there is something better than themselves almost within reach. Yet they do not know where to look for it or how to find it. In despair, they rage against other people, who are equally lost and equally unhappy. We have reached a stage in evolution that is not the final stage. We must pass through this stage quickly. Otherwise, most of us will die along the way. The rest will be lost in a forest of doubt and fear. So envy, evil as it is and terrible as its effects are, is not entirely the devil's work. It is partly the expression of heroic suffering. It is the pain of people walking blindly through the night, perhaps towards a better resting place. Perhaps they are walking only towards death and destruction. To find the right path out of this despair, civilized people must expand their hearts as they have their minds. They must learn to reach beyond themselves and, by doing so, gain the freedom of the Universe.