Now if in this particular science any one would attend to its original seeds, and their first shoot, he would then as in others have the subject perfectly before him; and perceive, in the first place, that it is requisite that those should be joined together whose species cannot exist without each other, as the male and the female, for the business of propagation; and this not through choice, but by that natural impulse which acts both upon plants and animals also, for the purpose of their leaving behind them others like themselves. It is also from natural causes that some beings command and others obey, that each may obtain their mutual safety; for a being who is endowed with a mind capable of reflection and forethought is by nature the superior and governor, whereas he whose excellence is merely corporeal is formect to be a slave; whence it follows that the different state of master [1252b] and slave is equally advantageous to both. But there is a natural difference between a female and a slave: for nature is not like the artists who make the Delphic swords for the use of the poor, but for every particular purpose she has her separate instruments, and thus her ends are most complete, for whatsoever is employed on one subject only, brings that one to much greater perfection than when employed on many; and yet among the barbarians, a female and a slave are upon a level in the community, the reason for which is, that amongst them there are none qualified by nature to govern, therefore their society can be nothing but between slaves of different sexes. For which reason the poets say, it is proper for the Greeks to govern the barbarians, as if a barbarian and a slave were by nature one. Now of these two societies the domestic is the first, and Hesiod is right when he says, "First a house, then a wife, then an ox for the plough," for the poor man has always an ox before a household slave. That society then which nature has established for daily support is the domestic, and those who compose it are called by Charondas homosipuoi, and by Epimenides the Cretan homokapnoi; but the society of many families, which was first instituted for their lasting, mutual advantage, is called a village, and a village is most naturally composed of the descendants of one family, whom some persons call homogalaktes, the children and the children's children thereof: for which reason cities were originally governed by kings, as the barbarian states now are, which are composed of those who had before submitted to kingly government; for every family is governed by the elder, as are the branches thereof, on account of their relationship thereunto, which is what Homer says, "Each one ruled his wife and child;" and in this scattered manner they formerly lived. And the opinion which universally prevails, that the gods themselves are subject to kingly government, arises from hence, that all men formerly were, and many are so now; and as they imagined themselves to be made in the likeness of the gods, so they supposed their manner of life must needs be the same. And when many villages so entirely join themselves together as in every respect to form but one society, that society is a city, and contains in itself, if I may so speak, the end and perfection of government: first founded that we might live, but continued that we may live happily. For which reason every city must be allowed to be the work of nature, if we admit that the original society between male and female is; for to this as their end all subordinate societies tend, and the end of everything is the nature of it. For what every being is in its most perfect state, that certainly is the nature of that being, whether it be a man, a horse, or a house: besides, whatsoever produces the final cause and the end which we [1253a] desire, must be best; but a government complete in itself is that final cause and what is best. Hence it is evident that a city is a natural production, and that man is naturally a political animal, and that whosoever is naturally and not accidentally unfit for society, must be either inferior or superior to man: thus the man in Homer, who is reviled for being "without society, without law, without family." Such a one must naturally be of a quarrelsome disposition, and as solitary as the birds. The gift of speech also evidently proves that man is a more social animal than the bees, or any of the herding cattle: for nature, as we say, does nothing in vain, and man is the only animal who enjoys it. Voice indeed, as being the token of pleasure and pain, is imparted to others also, and thus much their nature is capable of, to perceive pleasure and pain, and to impart these sensations to others; but it is by speech that we are enabled to express what is useful for us, and what is hurtful, and of course what is just and what is unjust: for in this particular man differs from other animals, that he alone has a perception of good and evil, of just and unjust, and it is a participation of these common sentiments which forms a family and a city. Besides, the notion of a city naturally precedes that of a family or an individual, for the whole must necessarily be prior to the parts, for if you take away the whole man, you cannot say a foot or a hand remains, unless by equivocation, as supposing a hand of stone to be made, but that would only be a dead one; but everything is understood to be this or that by its energic qualities and powers, so that when these no longer remain, neither can that be said to be the same, but something of the same name. That a city then precedes an individual is plain, for if an individual is not in himself sufficient to compose a perfect government, he is to a city as other parts are to a whole; but he that is incapable of society, or so complete in himself as not to want it, makes no part of a city, as a beast or a god. There is then in all persons a natural impetus to associate with each other in this manner, and he who first founded civil society was the cause of the greatest good; for as by the completion of it man is the most excellent of all living beings, so without law and justice he would be the worst of all, for nothing is so difficult to subdue as injustice in arms: but these arms man is born with, namely, prudence and valour, which he may apply to the most opposite purposes, for he who abuses them will be the most wicked, the most cruel, the most lustful, and most gluttonous being imaginable; for justice is a political virtue, by the rules of it the state is regulated, and these rules are the criterion of what is right.
In this science, as in others, examining its first beginnings and earliest growth would give us a complete understanding. First, we would see that beings whose kind cannot survive without one another must join together. Male and female, for example, must unite to reproduce. They do so not by choice, but through a natural impulse shared by plants and animals. This impulse leads them to leave behind others like themselves. Nature also makes some beings rule and others obey, so that both may remain safe. A being whose mind can reflect and plan ahead is naturally superior and fit to govern. Someone whose excellence lies only in bodily strength is naturally fitted to be a slave. It follows that the different positions of master [1252b] and slave benefit both equally. But there is a natural difference between a woman and a slave. Nature does not work like the craftsmen who make Delphic swords for poor people. Instead, nature provides a separate tool for each purpose, and so achieves her aims most fully. A tool used for just one task performs that task much better than a tool used for many. Yet among the barbarians, women and slaves have the same standing in the community. The reason is that none of them are naturally qualified to govern. Their society can therefore be nothing more than an association of male and female slaves. For this reason, the poets say that it is right for Greeks to rule barbarians. They speak as if a barbarian and a slave were naturally the same. The household is the first community formed from these two relationships. Hesiod is right when he says, "First a house, then a wife, then an ox for the plough," since a poor man always gets an ox before a household slave. The household, then, is the community nature establishes to meet daily needs. Charondas calls its members homosipuoi, and Epimenides the Cretan calls them homokapnoi. A community of several families, first established for their lasting mutual benefit, is called a village. A village most naturally consists of the descendants of one family. Some call these descendants homogalaktes, meaning the family's children and grandchildren. This explains why cities were originally ruled by kings, as barbarian states still are. These cities consist of people who had previously lived under kings. Every family is ruled by its eldest member. Its branches are ruled in the same way because of their kinship. As Homer says, "Each one ruled his wife and child;" and people formerly lived scattered in this way. The universally held belief that the gods themselves live under kings has the same source. All people once lived under kings, and many still do. Just as people imagined themselves to be made in the gods' likeness, they assumed the gods lived as they did. When several villages unite completely into a single community, that community is a city. The city represents, so to speak, the goal and fullest development of government. It is first founded so that we may live, but continues to exist so that we may live well. Every city must therefore be accepted as a work of nature, if the original union of male and female is natural. All smaller communities develop toward the city as their goal, and the goal of anything is its nature. What any being is in its fully developed state is its nature, whether a person, a horse, or a house. Moreover, whatever achieves the ultimate purpose and the goal we [1253a] desire must be best. A self-sufficient political community is that ultimate goal and what is best. It is therefore clear that a city is a natural creation, and that human beings are naturally political animals. Anyone unsuited to society by nature, rather than by circumstance, must be either less or more than human. Such is the man Homer condemns as being "without society, without law, without family." Such a person must naturally be quarrelsome and as solitary as the birds. The gift of speech also clearly shows that humans are more social than bees or any herding animals. For nature, as we say, does nothing without a purpose, and humans alone possess speech. Other animals also have voices, which express pleasure and pain. Their nature allows them to feel pleasure and pain and communicate these feelings to one another. But speech enables us to express what is useful and harmful, and therefore what is just and unjust. Humans differ from other animals in this respect. They alone perceive good and evil, justice and injustice. Sharing these judgments forms a family and a city. Moreover, the city is naturally prior to the family or the individual, because the whole must come before its parts. If you take away the whole person, no foot or hand remains except in name. You might, for example, make a hand out of stone, but it would only be a dead hand. Everything is defined by what it does and the powers it has. When those powers disappear, the thing is no longer the same, but merely shares the same name. It is therefore clear that the city is prior to the individual. An individual alone cannot form a complete political community, and so stands to the city as other parts do to a whole. But someone unable to participate in society, or so self-sufficient as not to need it, is no part of a city. Such a being is either a beast or a god. All people, then, have a natural impulse to form this kind of community. Whoever first founded civil society brought about the greatest good. For just as humans are the finest living beings when fully developed, without law and justice they are the worst. Nothing is harder to overcome than armed injustice. Humans are born with such weapons, namely judgment and courage, which they can use for entirely opposite purposes. Those who misuse these powers will be the most wicked, cruel, lustful, and gluttonous beings imaginable. For justice is a political virtue. Its rules govern the state, and those rules are the standard of what is right.