Chapter 7

As the greater part of the community are divided into four sorts of people; husbandmen, mechanics, traders, and hired servants; and as those who are employed in war may likewise be divided into four; the horsemen, the heavy-armed soldier, the light-armed, and the sailor, where the nature of the country can admit a great number of horse; there a powerful oligarchy may be easily established: for the safety of the inhabitants depends upon a force of that sort; but those who can support the expense of horsemen must be persons of some considerable fortune. Where the troops are chiefly heavy-armed, there an oligarchy, inferior in power to the other, may be established; for the heavy-armed are rather made up of men of substance than the poor: but the light-armed and the sailors always contribute to support a democracy: but where the number of these is very great and a sedition arises, the other parts of the community fight at a disadvantage; but a remedy for this evil is to be learned from skilful generals, who always mix a proper number of light-armed soldiers with their horse and heavy-armed: for it is with those that the populace get the better of the men of fortune in an insurrection; for these being lighter are easily a match for the horse and the heavy-armed: so that for an oligarchy to form a body of troops from these is to form it against itself: but as a city is composed of persons of different ages, some young and some old, the fathers should teach their sons, while they were very young, a light and easy exercise; but, when they are grown up, they should be perfect in every warlike exercise. Now, the admission of the people to any share in the government should either be (as I said before) regulated by a census, or else, as at Thebes, allowed to those who for a certain time have ceased from any mechanic employment, or as at Massalia, where they are chosen according to their worth, whether citizens or foreigners. With respect to the magistrates of the highest rank which it may be necessary to have in a state, the services they are bound to do the public should be expressly laid down, to prevent the common people from being desirous of accepting their employments, and also to induce them to regard their magistrates with favour when they know what a price they pay for their honours. It is also necessary that the magistrates, upon entering into their offices, should make magnificent sacrifices and erect some public structure, that the people partaking of the entertainment, and seeing the city ornamented with votive gifts in their temples and public structures, may see with pleasure the stability of the government: add to this also, that the nobles will have their generosity recorded: but now this is not the conduct which those who are at present at the head of an oligarchy pursue, but the contrary; for they are not more desirous of honour than of gain; for which reason such oligarchies may more properly be called little democracies. Thus [1321b] we have explained on what principles a democracy and an oligarchy ought to be established.

Most of the community falls into four groups: farmers, craftspeople, traders, and hired workers. Those who serve in war likewise fall into four groups: cavalry, heavily armed infantry, lightly armed infantry, and sailors. Where the terrain allows large numbers of cavalry, a strong oligarchy can easily be established. The inhabitants’ safety depends on cavalry, but only people with considerable wealth can afford to maintain such forces. Where troops are mainly heavily armed infantry, an oligarchy may be established, though a weaker one. This is because heavily armed infantry generally come from wealthy families rather than poor ones. But lightly armed infantry and sailors always help support democracy. Where these groups are very numerous and an uprising occurs, the other sections of the community fight at a disadvantage. A remedy for this problem can be learned from skilled generals. They always mix enough lightly armed soldiers with their cavalry and heavily armed infantry. Lightly armed troops enable the common people to defeat the wealthy in an uprising. Because these troops move more easily, they can readily match cavalry and heavily armed infantry. So, for an oligarchy to recruit troops from these groups is to raise a force against itself. But a city contains people of different ages, some young and some old. Fathers should therefore teach their sons light, easy exercises while the boys are very young. When grown, the sons should be fully trained in every military exercise. As I said before, the people’s admission to a share in government should depend on a property assessment. Alternatively, as at Thebes, participation should be open to those who have stopped doing manual work for a certain time. Or officials may be chosen for their merit, whether citizens or foreigners, as at Massalia. The public duties of whatever highest-ranking officials a state needs should be clearly specified. This should discourage the common people from wanting these offices. It should also encourage them to view their officials favorably, knowing the price those officials pay for their honors. On taking office, officials must also offer lavish sacrifices and erect a public building or monument. The people can then share in the feast and see their city adorned with religious offerings in temples and public buildings. These benefits may lead the people to welcome the government’s stability. The nobles will also have their generosity recorded. But those who now lead oligarchies follow the opposite course. They are no more eager for honor than for profit. For this reason, such oligarchies might more properly be called little democracies. Thus [1321b] we have explained the principles on which a democracy and an oligarchy should be established.