Chapter 8

It now remains for us to treat of that government which is particularly called a free state, and also of a tyranny; and the reason for my choosing to place that free state here is, because this, as well as those aristocracies already mentioned, although they do not seem excesses, yet, to speak true, they have all departed from what a perfect government is. Nay, they are deviations both of them equally from other forms, as I said at the beginning. It is proper to mention a tyranny the last of all governments, for it is of all others the least like one: but as my intention is to treat of all governments in general, for this reason that also, as I have said, will be taken into consideration in its proper place.

We must now discuss the government specifically called a free state, and also tyranny. I have chosen to discuss the free state here for the following reason. Like the aristocracies already mentioned, the free state does not seem to be an extreme form of government. Yet, in truth, all these governments fall short of perfect government. Indeed, both the free state and those aristocracies are equally deviations from other forms, as I said at the beginning. Tyranny should be discussed last of all governments, because it is the least like a government. But I intend to discuss all governments in general. For this reason, tyranny too will be considered in its proper place, as I have said.

I shall now inquire into a free state and show what it is; and we shall the better understand its positive nature as we have already described an oligarchy and a democracy; for a free state is indeed nothing more than a mixture of them, and it has been usual to call those which incline most to a democracy, a free state; those which incline most to an oligarchy, an aristocracy, because those who are rich are generally men of family and education; besides, they enjoy those things which others are often guilty of crimes to procure: for which reason they are regarded as men of worth and honour and note.

I will now examine what a free state is. We will understand its nature better because we have already described oligarchy and democracy. A free state is really nothing more than a mixture of the two. Governments that lean more toward democracy have usually been called free states. Those that lean more toward oligarchy have usually been called aristocracies, because wealthy men generally have distinguished families and education. Besides, wealthy men already enjoy the things that others often commit crimes to obtain. For this reason, they are regarded as men of worth, honor, and distinction.

Since, then, it is the genius of an aristocracy to allot the larger part of the government to the best citizens, they therefore say, that an oligarchy is chiefly composed of those men who are worthy and honourable: now it [1294a] seems impossible that where the government is in the hands of the good, there the laws should not be good, but bad; or, on the contrary, that where the government is in the hands of the bad, there the laws should be good; nor is a government well constituted because the laws are, without at the same time care is taken that they are observed; for to enforce obedience to the laws which it makes is one proof of a good constitution in the state-another is, to have laws well calculated for those who are to abide by them; for if they are improper they must be obeyed: and this may be done two ways, either by their being the best relative to the particular state, or the best absolutely. An aristocracy seems most likely to confer the honours of the state on the virtuous; for virtue is the object of an aristocracy, riches of an oligarchy, and liberty of a democracy; for what is approved of by the majority will prevail in all or in each of these three different states; and that which seems good to most of those who compose the community will prevail: for what is called a state prevails in many communities, which aim at a mixture of rich and poor, riches and liberty: as for the rich, they are usually supposed to take the place of the worthy and honourable. As there are three things which claim an equal rank in the state, freedom, riches, and virtue (for as for the fourth, rank, it is an attendant on two of the others, for virtue and riches are the origin of family), it is evident, that the conjuncture of the rich and the poor make up a free state; but that all three tend to an aristocracy more than any other, except that which is truly so, which holds the first rank.

An aristocracy, by its nature, gives the best citizens the larger share of government. They therefore say that an oligarchy consists chiefly of worthy and honourable men. Now it [1294a] seems impossible for laws to be bad rather than good when good people govern. Conversely, it seems impossible for laws to be good when bad people govern. Nor is a government well organized merely because its laws are good, unless care is also taken to enforce them. One sign of a good constitution is that the state enforces obedience to the laws it makes. Another is that its laws are well suited to those who must live by them. For even unsuitable laws must be obeyed. Laws can be good in two ways: they can be best for the particular state, or best without qualification. An aristocracy seems most likely to award public honours to the virtuous. For aristocracy aims at virtue, oligarchy at wealth, and democracy at liberty. What the majority approves will prevail in all or any one of these three kinds of state. Whatever seems good to most members of the community will prevail. For what is called a constitutional government prevails in many communities that seek to combine rich and poor, wealth and liberty. The rich are usually regarded as standing in place of the worthy and honourable. Three things have an equal claim to standing in the state: freedom, wealth, and virtue. A fourth, noble birth, accompanies two of the others, since virtue and wealth are the origins of family distinction. Clearly, then, combining the rich and the poor produces a free state. But combining all three comes closer to aristocracy than any other arrangement, except true aristocracy itself, which ranks first.

We have already seen that there are governments different from a monarchy, a democracy, and an oligarchy; and what they are, and wherein they differ from each other; and also aristocracies and states properly so called, which are derived from them; and it is evident that these are not much unlike each other.

We have already seen that some governments differ from monarchy, democracy, and oligarchy. We have seen what these governments are and how they differ from one another. We have also examined aristocracies and states in the strict sense, which arise from these forms of government. Clearly, these are not very different from one another.