Practical Rules for Tragedy Writers

In constructing the plot and working it out with the proper diction, the poet should place the scene, as far as possible, before his eyes. In this way, seeing everything with the utmost vividness, as if he were a spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping with it, and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies. The need of such a rule is shown by the fault found in Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way from the temple. This fact escaped the observation of one who did not see the situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed, the audience being offended at the oversight.

When constructing a plot and choosing the right words, the poet should picture the scene as clearly as possible. By seeing everything vividly, as if watching the action, the poet can tell what fits and is less likely to miss inconsistencies. An error in Carcinus shows why this rule is needed. Amphiaraus was on his way from the temple. Someone who did not picture the scene missed this fact. On stage, however, the play failed because the audience was offended by the oversight.

Again, the poet should work out his play, to the best of his power, with appropriate gestures; for those who feel emotion are most convincing through natural sympathy with the characters they represent; and one who is agitated storms, one who is angry rages, with the most life-like reality. Hence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness. In the one case a man can take the mould of any character; in the other, he is lifted out of his proper self.

A poet should also work out the play with appropriate gestures, as far as possible. People who feel the emotions are most convincing because they naturally sympathize with the characters they portray. Someone who is agitated acts wildly, and someone who is angry rages, with the greatest realism. Poetry therefore requires either a natural gift or a touch of madness. A naturally gifted person can take on any character, while a person touched by madness is carried beyond their usual self.

As for the story, whether the poet takes it ready made or constructs it for himself, he should first sketch its general outline, and then fill in the episodes and amplify in detail. The general plan may be illustrated by the Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed; she disappears mysteriously from the eyes of those who sacrificed her; She is transported to another country, where the custom is to offer up all strangers to the goddess. To this ministry she is appointed. Some time later her own brother chances to arrive. The fact that the oracle for some reason ordered him to go there, is outside the general plan of the play. The purpose, again, of his coming is outside the action proper. However, he comes, he is seized, and, when on the point of being sacrificed, reveals who he is. The mode of recognition may be either that of Euripides or of Polyidus, in whose play he exclaims very naturally:—'So it was not my sister only, but I too, who was doomed to be sacrificed'; and by that remark he is saved.

Whether a poet borrows a story or invents one, he should first sketch its general outline. Then he should add the episodes and develop the details. The general plan can be illustrated by Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed, but mysteriously disappears from the sight of those who sacrificed her. She is taken to another country, where the custom is to sacrifice all strangers to the goddess. She is appointed to serve the goddess in this way. Some time later, her brother happens to arrive. The fact that the oracle ordered him to go there for some reason is outside the play’s general plan. The purpose of his visit is also outside the action itself. In any case, he arrives and is seized. Just as he is about to be sacrificed, he reveals who he is. The recognition may happen as it does in Euripides or in Polyidus. In the latter’s play, the brother exclaims quite naturally: “So it was not only my sister, but I too, who was doomed to be sacrificed.” This remark saves him.

After this, the names being once given, it remains to fill in the episodes. We must see that they are relevant to the action. In the case of Orestes, for example, there is the madness which led to his capture, and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite. In the drama, the episodes are short, but it is these that give extension to Epic poetry. Thus the story of the Odyssey can be stated briefly. A certain man is absent from home for many years; he is jealously watched by Poseidon, and left desolate. Meanwhile his home is in a wretched plight—suitors are wasting his substance and plotting against his son. At length, tempest-tost, he himself arrives; he makes certain persons acquainted with him; he attacks the suitors with his own hand, and is himself preserved while he destroys them. This is the essence of the plot; the rest is episode.

After naming the characters, the next step is to fill in the episodes. We must make sure they are relevant to the action. In the story of Orestes, for example, his madness leads to his capture, and a purification rite brings about his release. In drama, episodes are short, but in epic poetry, they give the story its length. For example, the story of the Odyssey can be told briefly. A man is away from home for many years. Poseidon watches him with hostility, and he is left alone. Meanwhile, his home is in a wretched state. Suitors are wasting his wealth and plotting against his son. At last, after being battered by storms, he arrives home. He reveals his identity to certain people. He attacks the suitors himself, survives, and destroys them. This is the essence of the plot. The rest consists of episodes.