Poetry's Origins and Development

Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes, each of them lying deep in our nature. First, the instinct of imitation is implanted in man from childhood, one difference between him and other animals being that he is the most imitative of living creatures, and through imitation learns his earliest lessons; and no less universal is the pleasure felt in things imitated. We have evidence of this in the facts of experience. Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies. The cause of this again is, that to learn gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers but to men in general; whose capacity, however, of learning is more limited. Thus the reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is, that in contemplating it they find themselves learning or inferring, and saying perhaps, 'Ah, that is he.' For if you happen not to have seen the original, the pleasure will be due not to the imitation as such, but to the execution, the colouring, or some such other cause.

Poetry in general seems to have arisen from two causes, both deeply rooted in human nature. First, people have an instinct for imitation from childhood. One difference between humans and other animals is that humans are the most imitative of living creatures. Through imitation, they learn their earliest lessons. Pleasure in imitations is just as universal. Experience gives us evidence of this. We enjoy looking at accurate reproductions of things that are painful to see in themselves. These include the forms of the most lowly animals and of dead bodies. The reason for this pleasure is that learning gives the greatest pleasure, not only to philosophers but to people generally. However, most people have a more limited capacity for learning. People enjoy seeing a likeness because, as they look at it, they learn or draw a conclusion. They may say, 'Ah, that is him.' But if you have not seen the original, your pleasure will not come from the imitation itself. It will come from the workmanship, the colors, or some other such feature.

Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, metres being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry.

Imitation, then, is one of our natural instincts. We also have an instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm. Metres are clearly divisions of rhythm. So people with this natural gift gradually developed their particular abilities. Their rough improvisations eventually gave rise to Poetry.

Poetry now diverged in two directions, according to the individual character of the writers. The graver spirits imitated noble actions, and the actions of good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former did hymns to the gods and the praises of famous men. A poem of the satirical kind cannot indeed be put down to any author earlier than Homer; though many such writers probably there were. But from Homer onward, instances can be cited,—his own Margites, for example, and other similar compositions. The appropriate metre was also here introduced; hence the measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure, being that in which people lampooned one another. Thus the older poets were distinguished as writers of heroic or of lampooning verse.

Poetry then developed in two directions, according to the character of each writer. More serious writers imitated noble actions and the actions of good men. More frivolous writers imitated the actions of lesser people. At first, they wrote satires, just as the serious writers composed hymns to the gods and praised famous men. No satirical poem can be attributed to a writer earlier than Homer, though there were probably many such writers. From Homer onward, however, examples can be found, such as his own Margites and other similar works. A suitable meter was also introduced for satire. It is still called the iambic or lampooning meter because people used it to mock one another. Thus, the early poets were known as writers of either heroic or lampooning verse.

As, in the serious style, Homer is pre-eminent among poets, for he alone combined dramatic form with excellence of imitation, so he too first laid down the main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous instead of writing personal satire. His Margites bears the same relation to Comedy that the Iliad and Odyssey do to Tragedy. But when Tragedy and Comedy came to light, the two classes of poets still followed their natural bent: the lampooners became writers of Comedy, and the Epic poets were succeeded by Tragedians, since the drama was a larger and higher form of art.

Homer stands above other poets in serious poetry. He alone combined dramatic form with excellent imitation. In the same way, he was the first to lay the foundations of Comedy. He did this by dramatizing what is ridiculous instead of writing personal satire. His Margites has the same relationship to Comedy that the Iliad and Odyssey have to Tragedy. But when Tragedy and Comedy emerged, the two kinds of poets continued to follow their natural inclinations. Writers of personal satire became writers of Comedy, while Tragedians succeeded Epic poets, since drama was a broader and higher form of art.

Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper types or not; and whether it is to be judged in itself, or in relation also to the audience,—this raises another question. Be that as it may, Tragedy—as also Comedy—was at first mere improvisation. The one originated with the authors of the Dithyramb, the other with those of the phallic songs, which are still in use in many of our cities. Tragedy advanced by slow degrees; each new element that showed itself was in turn developed. Having passed through many changes, it found its natural form, and there it stopped.

Whether Tragedy has yet perfected its proper forms is another question. So is whether Tragedy should be judged on its own or also in relation to its audience. In any case, both Tragedy and Comedy began as improvisation. Tragedy originated with the authors of the Dithyramb, and Comedy with the authors of phallic songs. These songs are still in use in many of our cities. Tragedy developed slowly, with each new element being developed in turn. After many changes, Tragedy found its natural form and stopped developing.

Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he diminished the importance of the Chorus, and assigned the leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles raised the number of actors to three, and added scene-painting. Moreover, it was not till late that the short plot was discarded for one of greater compass, and the grotesque diction of the earlier satyric form for the stately manner of Tragedy. The iambic measure then replaced the trochaic tetrameter, which was originally employed when the poetry was of the Satyric order, and had greater affinities with dancing. Once dialogue had come in, Nature herself discovered the appropriate measure. For the iambic is, of all measures, the most colloquial: we see it in the fact that conversational speech runs into iambic lines more frequently than into any other kind of verse; rarely into hexameters, and only when we drop the colloquial intonation. The additions to the number of 'episodes' or acts, and the other accessories of which tradition; tells, must be taken as already described; for to discuss them in detail would, doubtless, be a large undertaking.

Aeschylus first introduced a second actor. He reduced the importance of the Chorus and gave dialogue the leading role. Sophocles increased the number of actors to three and added painted scenery. Only later were short plots replaced by longer ones, and the grotesque language of the earlier satyric form by the stately style of Tragedy. Iambic meter then replaced trochaic tetrameter. Trochaic tetrameter had originally been used when the poetry was Satyric and more closely connected with dancing. Once dialogue appeared, Nature herself found the appropriate meter. Of all meters, iambic is the closest to everyday speech. We can see this because conversation falls into iambic lines more often than into any other kind of verse. It rarely falls into hexameters, and only when we abandon the tone of everyday speech. The increase in the number of 'episodes' or acts, and the other additions recorded by tradition, must be taken as already described. Discussing them in detail would, no doubt, be a major undertaking.