Miracles and Their Uses

By Miracles are signified the Admirable works of God: & therefore they are also called Wonders. And because they are for the most part, done, for a signification of his commandement, in such occasions, as without them, men are apt to doubt, (following their private naturall reasoning,) what he hath commanded, and what not, they are commonly in Holy Scripture, called Signes, in the same sense, as they are called by the Latines, Ostenta, and Portenta, from shewing, and fore-signifying that, which the Almighty is about to bring to passe.

Miracles are the awe-inspiring works of God, and so they are also called Wonders. Most miracles serve to show God's commands when people would otherwise be unsure what he has or has not commanded. Such doubts arise when people rely on their own natural reasoning. Because miracles serve this purpose, Holy Scripture commonly calls them Signs. The Latins call them Ostenta and Portenta in the same sense. These names refer to showing and signaling beforehand what the Almighty is about to bring about.

To understand therefore what is a Miracle, we must first understand what works they are, which men wonder at, and call Admirable. And there be but two things which make men wonder at any event: The one is, if it be strange, that is to say, such, as the like of it hath never, or very rarely been produced: The other is, if when it is produced, we cannot imagine it to have been done by naturall means, but onely by the immediate hand of God. But when wee see some possible, naturall cause of it, how rarely soever the like has been done; or if the like have been often done, how impossible soever it be to imagine a naturall means thereof, we no more wonder, nor esteem it for a Miracle.

To understand what a miracle is, we must first understand what events people marvel at and consider astonishing. Only two things make people marvel at an event. One is that the event is strange, meaning that something like it has never, or very rarely, happened before. The other is that, when the event happens, we cannot imagine any natural means of bringing it about. We can only imagine God bringing it about directly. But if we see a possible natural cause, we no longer marvel or consider the event a miracle. This is true no matter how rarely anything like the event has happened. The same is true if similar events have happened often, however impossible imagining a natural cause may be.

Therefore, if a Horse, or Cow should speak, it were a Miracle; because both the thing is strange, & the Naturall cause difficult to imagin: So also were it, to see a strange deviation of nature, in the production of some new shape of a living creature. But when a man, or other Animal, engenders his like, though we know no more how this is done, than the other; yet because ’tis usuall, it is no Miracle. In like manner, if a man be metamorphosed into a stone, or into a pillar, it is a Miracle; because strange: but if a peece of wood be so changed; because we see it often, it is no Miracle: and yet we know no more, by what operation of God, the one is brought to passe, than the other.

Therefore, if a horse or cow were to speak, that would be a miracle. Such an event would be unusual, and its natural cause would be hard to imagine. The same would apply if nature took an unusual turn and produced a living creature with some new shape. But when a human or another animal produces offspring of its own kind, we do not call that a miracle. We know no more about how such reproduction happens than how those unusual events happen. Yet because reproduction is common, it is no miracle. Likewise, if a person were transformed into stone or a pillar, that would be a miracle because it is unusual. But if a piece of wood were transformed in the same way, that would be no miracle. The reason is that we often see wood undergo such a change. Yet we know no more about how God brings about one transformation than how he brings about the other.

The first Rainbow that was seen in the world, was a Miracle, because the first; and consequently strange; and served for a sign from God, placed in heaven, to assure his people, there should be no more an universall destruction of the world by Water. But at this day, because they are frequent, they are not Miracles, neither to them that know their naturall causes, nor to them who know them not. Again, there be many rare works produced by the Art of man: yet when we know they are done; because thereby wee know also the means how they are done, we count them not for Miracles, because not wrought by the immediate hand of God, but by mediation of humane Industry.

The first rainbow seen in the world was a miracle because it was the first, and therefore unfamiliar. It served as a sign from God, placed in the sky to reassure his people. The sign promised that water would never again destroy the whole world. But today, because rainbows are common, they are not miracles. This is true both for people who understand their natural causes and for people who do not. Likewise, human skill produces many rare wonders. Yet when we know these wonders are human creations, we also know the means by which they are made. So we do not consider them miracles, because they are not made directly by God, but through human effort.

Furthermore, seeing Admiration and Wonder, is consequent to the knowledge and experience, wherewith men are endued, some more, some lesse; it followeth, that the same thing, may be a Miracle to one, and not to another. And thence it is, that ignorant, and superstitious men make great Wonders of those works, which other men, knowing to proceed from Nature, (which is not the immediate, but the ordinary work of God,) admire not at all: As when Ecclipses of the Sun and Moon have been taken for supernaturall works, by the common people; when neverthelesse, there were others, could from their naturall causes, have foretold the very hour they should arrive: Or, as when a man, by confederacy, and secret intelligence, getting knowledge of the private actions of an ignorant, unwary man, thereby tells him, what he has done in former time; it seems to him a Miraculous thing; but amongst wise, and cautelous men, such Miracles as those, cannot easily be done.

Furthermore, amazement and wonder depend on knowledge and experience, and some people have more knowledge and experience than others. It follows that the same thing may seem a miracle to one person but not to another. So ignorant and superstitious people see great wonders in events that others know have natural causes. Those who understand these causes feel no wonder at all. Nature is God’s ordinary work, rather than his direct intervention. For example, ordinary people have taken eclipses of the Sun and Moon to be supernatural events. Yet others, understanding their natural causes, could have predicted the very hour of those eclipses. Or someone may secretly work with others to learn about the private actions of an ignorant, unsuspecting person. When told what he has done in the past, the unsuspecting person thinks the revelation is miraculous. But such miracles cannot easily be performed among wise and cautious people.

Again, it belongeth to the nature of a Miracle, that it be wrought for the procuring of credit to Gods Messengers, Ministers, and Prophets, that thereby men may know, they are called, sent, and employed by God, and thereby be the better inclined to obey them. And therefore, though the creation of the world, and after that the destruction of all living creatures in the universall deluge, were admirable works; yet because they were not done to procure credit to any Prophet, or other Minister of God, they use not to be called Miracles. For how admirable soever any work be, the Admiration consisteth not in that it could be done, because men naturally beleeve the Almighty can doe all things, but because he does it at the Prayer, or Word of a man. But the works of God in Egypt, by the hand of Moses, were properly Miracles; because they were done with intention to make the people of Israel beleeve, that Moses came unto them, not out of any design of his owne interest, but as sent from God. Therefore after God had commanded him to deliver the Israelites from the Egyptian bondage, when he said (Exod 4.1. &c.) “They will not beleeve me, but will say, the Lord hath not appeared unto me,” God gave him power, to turn the Rod he had in his hand into a Serpent, and again to return it into a Rod; and by putting his hand into his bosome, to make it leprous; and again by pulling it out to make it whole, to make the Children of Israel beleeve (as it is verse 5.) that the God of their Fathers had appeared unto him; And if that were not enough, he gave him power to turn their waters into bloud. And when hee had done these Miracles before the people, it is said (verse 41.) that “they beleeved him.” Neverthelesse, for fear of Pharaoh, they durst not yet obey him. Therefore the other works which were done to plague Pharaoh and the Egyptians, tended all to make the Israelites beleeve in Moses, and were properly Miracles. In like manner if we consider all the Miracles done by the hand of Moses, and all the rest of the Prophets, till the Captivity; and those of our Saviour, and his Apostles afterward; we shall find, their end was alwaies to beget, or confirm beleefe, that they came not of their own motion, but were sent by God. Wee may further observe in Scripture, that the end of Miracles, was to beget beleef, not universally in all men, elect, and reprobate; but in the elect only; that is to say, is such as God had determined should become his Subjects. For those miraculous plagues of Egypt, had not for end, the conversion of Pharaoh; For God had told Moses before, that he would harden the heart of Pharaoh, that he should not let the people goe: And when he let them goe at last, not the Miracles perswaded him, but the plagues forced him to it. So also of our Saviour, it is written, (Mat. 13. 58.) that he wrought not many Miracles in his own countrey, because of their unbeleef; and (in Marke 6.5.) in stead of, “he wrought not many,” it is, “he could work none.” It was not because he wanted power; which to say, were blasphemy against God; nor that the end of Miracles was not to convert incredulous men to Christ; for the end of all the Miracles of Moses, of Prophets, of our Saviour, and of his Apostles was to adde men to the Church; but it was, because the end of their Miracles, was to adde to the Church (not all men, but) such as should be saved; that is to say, such as God had elected. Seeing therefore our Saviour sent from his Father, hee could not use his power in the conversion of those, whom his Father had rejected. They that expounding this place of St. Marke, say, that his word, “Hee could not,” is put for, “He would not,” do it without example in the Greek tongue, (where Would Not, is put sometimes for Could Not, in things inanimate, that have no will; but Could Not, for Would Not, never,) and thereby lay a stumbling block before weak Christians; as if Christ could doe no Miracles, but amongst the credulous.

Again, a miracle must serve to establish the authority of God’s messengers, ministers, and prophets. Through miracles, people may know that God has called, sent, and employed these messengers, and become more willing to obey them. The creation of the world and the later destruction of all living creatures in the universal flood were astonishing works. Yet these works are not usually called miracles, because they did not establish any prophet’s or other minister’s authority. However astonishing a work may be, the wonder is not that it could be done. People naturally believe that the Almighty can do all things. Rather, the wonder is that God does the work at a person’s prayer or command. But God’s works in Egypt, performed through Moses, were properly miracles. Their purpose was to make the people of Israel believe that Moses had come as God’s messenger. Moses had not come to pursue some plan for his own benefit. After God commanded Moses to free the Israelites from Egyptian slavery, Moses raised an objection (Exod. 4:1 and following). “They will not believe me, but will say, the Lord has not appeared to me.” So God gave Moses the power to turn the staff in his hand into a snake, and back again. God also gave Moses the power to make his hand leprous by putting it inside his clothing. By pulling his hand out again, Moses could make it healthy. These signs would make the Children of Israel believe that the God of their Fathers had appeared to Moses (verse 5). And if these signs were not enough, God gave Moses the power to turn their waters into blood. When Moses performed these miracles before the people, we are told (verse 41) that “they believed him.” Nevertheless, fear of Pharaoh still kept the Israelites from daring to obey Moses. Therefore, the other works that brought plagues upon Pharaoh and the Egyptians all served to make the Israelites believe in Moses. These works, too, were properly miracles. Likewise, consider all the miracles performed through Moses and all the other Prophets until the Captivity. Consider also the miracles of our Saviour and, afterward, his Apostles. We will find that their purpose was always to create or confirm belief that God had sent these messengers. They had not come on their own initiative. We may further observe in Scripture that miracles were not intended to produce belief in everyone, both elect and reprobate. Their purpose was to produce belief only in the elect, those whom God had determined should become his subjects. For the miraculous plagues of Egypt were not intended to convert Pharaoh. God had already told Moses that he would harden Pharaoh’s heart, so that Pharaoh would not let the people go. And when Pharaoh finally let them go, the miracles had not persuaded him. The plagues had forced him. Likewise, it is written of our Saviour (Matt. 13:58) that he performed few miracles in his own country because of their unbelief. In Mark 6:5, instead of “he did not perform many,” the words are “he could perform none.” This was not because he lacked power. To say that would be blasphemy against God. Nor was it because miracles were not intended to convert unbelievers to Christ. All the miracles of Moses, the Prophets, our Saviour, and his Apostles were intended to bring people into the Church. But these miracles were intended to bring into the Church only those who would be saved, not everyone. In other words, their purpose was to bring in those whom God had chosen. Therefore, since our Saviour was sent by his Father, he could not use his power to convert those his Father had rejected. Some interpreters of this passage in St. Mark say that “He could not” means “He would not.” But there is no example of this usage in Greek. “Would not” sometimes means “could not” when referring to inanimate things, which have no will. But “could not” never means “would not.” These interpreters therefore put an obstacle in the way of Christians whose faith is weak. They make it seem as if Christ could perform miracles only among those ready to believe.

From that which I have here set down, of the nature, and use of a Miracle, we may define it thus, “A MIRACLE, is a work of God, (besides his operation by the way of Nature, ordained in the Creation,) done for the making manifest to his elect, the mission of an extraordinary Minister for their salvation.”

Based on what I have explained about the nature and use of miracles, we may define a miracle as follows: “A MIRACLE is an act of God beyond his work through the natural order established at Creation. Its purpose is to show his elect that he has sent an extraordinary minister for their salvation.”

And from this definition, we may inferre; First, that in all Miracles, the work done, is not the effect of any vertue in the Prophet; because it is the effect of the immediate hand of God; that is to say God hath done it, without using the Prophet therein, as a subordinate cause.

From this definition, we may infer, first, that all miracles happen without any power in the Prophet. This is because miracles are the direct work of God. In other words, God has performed the miracle without using the Prophet as an intermediary cause.

Secondly, that no Devil, Angel, or other created Spirit, can do a Miracle. For it must either be by vertue of some naturall science, or by Incantation, that is, vertue of words. For if the Inchanters do it by their own power independent, there is some power that proceedeth not from God; which all men deny: and if they doe it by power given them, then is the work not from the immediate hand of God, but naturall, and consequently no Miracle.

Secondly, no Devil, Angel, or other created spirit can perform a miracle. For such an act must rely either on knowledge of nature or on incantation, meaning the power of words. For if enchanters act through their own independent power, then some power does not come from God. All people deny that any such power exists. But if enchanters act through power given to them, then the act does not come directly from God. Instead, the act is natural and therefore not a miracle.

There be some texts of Scripture, that seem to attribute the power of working wonders (equall to some of those immediate Miracles, wrought by God himself,) to certain Arts of Magick, and Incantation. As for example, when we read that after the Rod of Moses being cast on the ground became a Serpent, (Exod. 7. 11.) “the Magicians of Egypt did the like by their Enchantments;” and that after Moses had turned the waters of the Egyptian Streams, Rivers, Ponds, and Pooles of water into blood, (Exod. 7. 22.) “the Magicians of Egypt did so likewise, with their Enchantments;” and that after Moses had by the power of God brought frogs upon the land, (Exod. 8. 7.) “the Magicians also did so with their Enchantments, and brought up frogs upon the land of Egypt;” will not a man be apt to attribute Miracles to Enchantments; that is to say, to the efficacy of the sound of Words; and think the same very well proved out of this, and other such places? and yet there is no place of Scripture, that telleth us what on Enchantment is. If therefore Enchantment be not, as many think it, a working of strange effects by spells, and words; but Imposture, and delusion, wrought by ordinary means; and so far from supernaturall, as the Impostors need not the study so much as of naturall causes, but the ordinary ignorance, stupidity, and superstition of mankind, to doe them; those texts that seem to countenance the power of Magick, Witchcraft, and Enchantment, must needs have another sense, than at first sight they seem to bear.

Some passages of Scripture seem to give certain magical arts and incantations the power to work wonders. These wonders seem equal to some miracles worked directly by God himself. For example, we read that Moses’ rod became a serpent when thrown to the ground (Exod. 7. 11.). Then “the Magicians of Egypt did the same through their enchantments.” Moses then turned the water in Egypt’s streams, rivers, ponds, and pools into blood (Exod. 7. 22.). Again, “the Magicians of Egypt did the same through their enchantments.” After Moses brought frogs upon the land by God’s power (Exod. 8. 7.), “the Magicians also did the same through their enchantments, and brought frogs upon the land of Egypt.” Wouldn’t a reader be inclined to credit enchantments with the power to perform miracles? That would mean crediting the sound of words with such power. Wouldn’t the reader think these passages, and others like them, proved that power very well? Yet no passage of Scripture tells us what an enchantment is. Suppose, then, that enchantment is not, as many think, the production of strange effects through spells and words. Suppose instead that enchantment is fraud and deception carried out by ordinary means. Such tricks would be so far from supernatural that the impostors would not even need to study natural causes. The impostors would need only humanity’s ordinary ignorance, stupidity, and superstition to perform their tricks. If so, passages that seem to support the power of magic, witchcraft, and enchantment must have another meaning. They cannot mean what they appear to mean at first sight.

For it is evident enough, that Words have no effect, but on those that understand them; and then they have no other, but to signifie the intentions, or passions of them that speak; and thereby produce, hope, fear, or other passions, or conceptions in the hearer. Therefore when a Rod seemeth a Serpent, or the Water Bloud, or any other Miracle seemeth done by Enchantment; if it be not to the edification of Gods people, not the Rod, nor the Water, nor any other thing is enchanted; that is to say, wrought upon by the Words, but the Spectator. So that all the Miracle consisteth in this, that the Enchanter has deceived a man; which is no Miracle, but a very easie matter to doe.

For it is clear enough that words have no effect except on those who understand them. Even then, words do nothing but express the speaker’s intentions or emotions. By doing so, words produce hope, fear, or other emotions or ideas in the listener. Therefore, suppose a rod seems to become a serpent, water seems to become blood, or enchantment seems to perform some other miracle. If the apparent miracle does not spiritually strengthen God’s people, neither the rod, the water, nor anything else is enchanted. In other words, the words have acted only on the spectator, not on those things. So the entire miracle amounts to nothing more than the enchanter deceiving someone. But deceiving someone is no miracle. It is a very easy thing to do.

For such is the ignorance, and aptitude to error generally of all men, but especially of them that have not much knowledge of naturall causes, and of the nature, and interests of men; as by innumerable and easie tricks to be abused. What opinion of miraculous power, before it was known there was a Science of the course of the Stars, might a man have gained, that should have told the people, This hour, or day the Sun should be darkned? A juggler by the handling of his goblets, and other trinkets, if it were not now ordinarily practised, would be thought to do his wonders by the power at least of the Devil. A man that hath practised to speak by drawing in of his breath, (which kind of men in antient time were called Ventriloqui,) and so make the weaknesse of his voice seem to proceed, not from the weak impulsion of the organs of Speech, but from distance of place, is able to make very many men beleeve it is a voice from Heaven, whatsoever he please to tell them. And for a crafty man, that hath enquired into the secrets, and familiar confessions that one man ordinarily maketh to another of his actions and adventures past, to tell them him again is no hard matter; and yet there be many, that by such means as that, obtain the reputation of being Conjurers. But it is too long a businesse, to reckon up the severall sorts of those men, which the Greeks called Thaumaturgi, that is to say, workers of things wonderfull; and yet these do all they do, by their own single dexterity. But if we looke upon the Impostures wrought by Confederacy, there is nothing how impossible soever to be done, that is impossible to bee beleeved. For two men conspiring, one to seem lame, the other to cure him with a charme, will deceive many: but many conspiring, one to seem lame, another so to cure him, and all the rest to bear witnesse; will deceive many more.

For all people are generally so ignorant and prone to error that countless simple tricks can deceive them. This is especially true of people who know little about natural causes, human nature, and human interests. Before people knew there was a science of the stars’ movements, what miraculous powers might they have credited someone with? He would only have needed to predict the hour or day when the Sun would go dark. If a juggler’s tricks with cups and other small objects were not now commonplace, people would think them supernatural. They would believe his wonders came at least from the Devil’s power. A man can train himself to speak while drawing in his breath. In ancient times, such men were called Ventriloqui. He can make his faint voice seem distant, rather than produced by weak movements of his speech organs. In this way, he can make very many people believe whatever he chooses to tell them comes from Heaven. A crafty man can also investigate the secrets and private confessions people commonly share about their past actions and experiences. Once he has learned these details, repeating them to the person concerned is easy. Yet many people gain a reputation as conjurers by such means. But listing all the kinds of people the Greeks called Thaumaturgi would take too long. The name means workers of wonders. Yet all their feats depend only on their own individual skill. But when we consider frauds carried out by people working together, nothing is too impossible to be believed. Two men can conspire, one pretending to be lame and the other pretending to cure him with a charm. They will deceive many people. But many conspirators will deceive many more. One pretends to be lame, another cures him in the same way, and all the rest act as witnesses.

In this aptitude of mankind, to give too hasty beleefe to pretended Miracles, there can be no better, nor I think any other caution, than that which God hath prescribed, first by Moses, (as I have said before in the precedent chapter,) in the beginning of the 13. and end of the 18. of Deuteronomy; That wee take not any for Prophets, that teach any other Religion, then that which Gods Lieutenant, (which at that time was Moses,) hath established; nor any, (though he teach the same Religion,) whose Praediction we doe not see come to passe. Moses therefore in his time, and Aaron, and his successors in their times, and the Soveraign Governour of Gods people, next under God himself, that is to say, the Head of the Church in all times, are to be consulted, what doctrine he hath established, before wee give credit to a pretended Miracle, or Prophet. And when that is done, the thing they pretend to be a Miracle, we must both see it done, and use all means possible to consider, whether it be really done; and not onely so, but whether it be such, as no man can do the like by his naturall power, but that it requires the immediate hand of God. And in this also we must have recourse to Gods Lieutenant; to whom in all doubtfull cases, wee have submitted our private judgments. For Example; if a man pretend, that after certain words spoken over a peece of bread, that presently God hath made it not bread, but a God, or a man, or both, and neverthelesse it looketh still as like bread as ever it did; there is no reason for any man to think it really done; nor consequently to fear him, till he enquire of God, by his Vicar, or Lieutenant, whether it be done, or not. If he say not, then followeth that which Moses saith, (Deut. 18. 22.) “he hath spoken it presumptuously, thou shalt not fear him.” If he say ’tis done, then he is not to contradict it. So also if wee see not, but onely hear tell of a Miracle, we are to consult the Lawful Church; that is to say, the lawful Head thereof, how far we are to give credit to the relators of it. And this is chiefly the case of men, that in these days live under Christian Soveraigns. For in these times, I do not know one man, that ever saw any such wondrous work, done by the charm, or at the word, or prayer of a man, that a man endued but with a mediocrity of reason, would think supernaturall: and the question is no more, whether what wee see done, be a Miracle; whether the Miracle we hear, or read of, were a reall work, and not the Act of a tongue, or pen; but in plain terms, whether the report be true, or a lye. In which question we are not every one, to make our own private Reason, or Conscience, but the Publique Reason, that is, the reason of Gods Supreme Lieutenant, Judge; and indeed we have made him Judge already, if wee have given him a Soveraign power, to doe all that is necessary for our peace and defence. A private man has alwaies the liberty, (because thought is free,) to beleeve, or not beleeve in his heart, those acts that have been given out for Miracles, according as he shall see, what benefit can accrew by mens belief, to those that pretend, or countenance them, and thereby conjecture, whether they be Miracles, or Lies. But when it comes to confession of that faith, the Private Reason must submit to the Publique; that is to say, to Gods Lieutenant. But who is this Lieutenant of God, and Head of the Church, shall be considered in its proper place thereafter.

People are too quick to believe supposed miracles. There can be no better safeguard, and I think no other, than the one God prescribed through Moses. As I said in the previous chapter, this appears at the beginning of Deuteronomy 13 and the end of Deuteronomy 18. We must not accept anyone as a prophet who teaches a religion different from the one established by God’s representative. At that time, God’s representative was Moses. Nor should we accept anyone whose predictions we do not see fulfilled, even if he teaches the same religion. We must therefore consult God’s representative about the doctrine he has established before believing a supposed miracle or prophet. This meant Moses in his time, Aaron and his successors in theirs, and the sovereign ruler of God’s people throughout history. This ruler stands immediately below God himself and is the Head of the Church. Once we have consulted him, we must see the supposed miracle performed. We must also use every possible means to determine whether it really happened. Beyond that, we must consider whether anyone could do the same through natural powers. We must determine whether the act requires God’s direct intervention. Here too, we must turn to God’s representative, to whom we have submitted our private judgments in all doubtful cases. For example, suppose someone claims that certain words spoken over a piece of bread have immediately changed it. He claims God has made it no longer bread, but a God, a man, or both. Yet the bread still looks exactly as it did before. No one has any reason to believe this change really happened, or therefore to fear the person claiming it. First, we must ask God, through his vicar or representative, whether the change has happened. If God’s representative says no, then Moses’ words apply (Deut. 18. 22.): “He has spoken presumptuously. You shall not fear him.” If God’s representative says the change has happened, then the person asking must not contradict that judgment. Likewise, if we only hear about a miracle rather than see it, we must consult the lawful Church. That means consulting its lawful head about how far we should trust those reporting the miracle. This is chiefly the situation of people who live under Christian sovereigns today. For nowadays, I know no one who has ever seen a wonder performed through someone’s spell, command, or prayer that anyone with even ordinary reason would consider supernatural. The question is no longer whether something we see performed is a miracle. It is whether a miracle we hear or read about really happened, rather than merely being spoken or written about. In plain terms, the question is whether the report is true or a lie. In deciding this question, we must not each make our private reason or conscience the judge. Instead, we must accept public reason, meaning the reason of God’s supreme representative. Indeed, we have already made him judge if we have given him sovereign power to do everything necessary for our peace and defense. A private individual always remains free to believe or disbelieve, inwardly, the acts reported as miracles, because thought is free. He may consider what benefit belief would bring to those claiming or supporting these miracles. From that benefit, he may judge whether the reported acts are miracles or lies. But when belief is publicly declared, private reason must submit to public reason, meaning God’s representative. Who this representative of God and Head of the Church is will be considered later, in its proper place.