Limits of Ignorance and Belief in the United States

The immediate result of Barbicane’s proposition was to place upon the orders of the day all the astronomical facts relative to the Queen of the Night. Everybody set to work to study assiduously. One would have thought that the moon had just appeared for the first time, and that no one had ever before caught a glimpse of her in the heavens. The papers revived all the old anecdotes in which the “sun of the wolves” played a part; they recalled the influences which the ignorance of past ages ascribed to her; in short, all America was seized with selenomania, or had become moon-mad.

Barbicane’s proposal immediately made all the astronomical facts about the Queen of the Night a topic of discussion. Everybody set to work studying hard. You would have thought the moon had just appeared for the first time. No one seemed ever to have caught a glimpse of her in the sky before. The newspapers revived all the old stories featuring the “sun of the wolves.” They recalled the powers that ignorant people in past ages had attributed to her. In short, all America was seized with selenomania, or had become moon-mad.

The scientific journals, for their part, dealt more especially with the questions which touched upon the enterprise of the Gun Club. The letter of the Observatory of Cambridge was published by them, and commented upon with unreserved approval.

For their part, scientific journals focused on questions related to the Gun Club's project. They published the letter from the Observatory of Cambridge and commented on it with complete approval.

Until that time most people had been ignorant of the mode in which the distance which separates the moon from the earth is calculated. They took advantage of this fact to explain to them that this distance was obtained by measuring the parallax of the moon. The term parallax proving “caviare to the general,” they further explained that it meant the angle formed by the inclination of two straight lines drawn from either extremity of the earth’s radius to the moon. On doubts being expressed as to the correctness of this method, they immediately proved that not only was the mean distance 234,347 miles, but that astronomers could not possibly be in error in their estimate by more than seventy miles either way.

Until then, most people did not know how the distance between the earth and the moon was calculated. Taking advantage of this, they explained that the distance was found by measuring the moon’s parallax. The term parallax proved “beyond most people’s understanding,” so they explained it further. It meant the angle formed by two straight lines drawn to the moon from either end of the earth’s radius. When people questioned the accuracy of this method, they immediately offered proof. The mean distance was 234,347 miles, and astronomers could not possibly have been wrong by more than seventy miles either way.

To those who were not familiar with the motions of the moon, they demonstrated that she possesses two distinct motions, the first being that of rotation upon her axis, the second being that of revolution round the earth, accomplishing both together in an equal period of time, that is to say, in twenty-seven and one-third days.

They explained the moon’s two distinct motions to those unfamiliar with them. First, the moon rotates on its axis. Second, it revolves around the earth. Both motions take the same amount of time: twenty-seven and one-third days.

The motion of rotation is that which produces day and night on the surface of the moon; save that there is only one day and one night in the lunar month, each lasting three hundred and fifty-four and one-third hours. But, happily for her, the face turned toward the terrestrial globe is illuminated by it with an intensity equal to that of fourteen moons. As to the other face, always invisible to us, it has of necessity three hundred and fifty-four hours of absolute night, tempered only by that “pale glimmer which falls upon it from the stars.”

The moon’s rotation produces day and night on its surface. But each lunar month has only one day and one night, each lasting 354⅓ hours. Fortunately for the moon, Earth illuminates the side facing it with the brightness of fourteen moons. The other side, which is always invisible to us, necessarily has 354 hours of absolute night. It is softened only by the “pale glimmer which falls upon it from the stars.”

Some well-intentioned, but rather obstinate persons, could not at first comprehend how, if the moon displays invariably the same face to the earth during her revolution, she can describe one turn round herself. To such they answered, “Go into your dining-room, and walk round the table in such a way as to always keep your face turned toward the center; by the time you will have achieved one complete round you will have completed one turn around yourself, since your eye will have traversed successively every point of the room. Well, then, the room is the heavens, the table is the earth, and the moon is yourself.” And they would go away delighted.

Some well-meaning but rather stubborn people could not understand how the moon could rotate once on its axis. After all, it always shows the same face to the earth as it travels around it. They were given this answer: “Go into your dining room and walk around the table, always facing its center. By the time you have gone all the way around, you will have turned around once yourself. Your eyes will have passed over every part of the room in turn. Now, the room is the heavens, the table is the earth, and you are the moon.” And they would go away delighted.

So, then the moon displays invariably the same face to the earth; nevertheless, to be quite exact, it is necessary to add that, in consequence of certain fluctuations of north and south, and of west and east, termed her libration, she permits rather more than half, that is to say, five-sevenths, to be seen.

So, the moon always shows the same face to the earth. But to be exact, the moon shifts slightly north and south, and east and west. Because of these movements, called libration, we can see rather more than half of the moon, or five-sevenths.

As soon as the ignoramuses came to understand as much as the director of the observatory himself knew, they began to worry themselves regarding her revolution round the earth, whereupon twenty scientific reviews immediately came to the rescue. They pointed out to them that the firmament, with its infinitude of stars, may be considered as one vast dial-plate, upon which the moon travels, indicating the true time to all the inhabitants of the earth; that it is during this movement that the Queen of Night exhibits her different phases; that the moon is full when she is in opposition with the sun, that is when the three bodies are on the same straight line, the earth occupying the center; that she is new when she is in conjunction with the sun, that is, when she is between it and the earth; and, lastly that she is in her first or last quarter, when she makes with the sun and the earth an angle of which she herself occupies the apex.

As soon as the ignoramuses understood as much as the observatory’s director himself knew, they began worrying about the moon’s orbit around the earth. Twenty scientific journals immediately came to their rescue. They explained that the sky, with its countless stars, could be thought of as one vast clock face. The moon travels across it, showing the true time to everyone on earth. As the Queen of Night moves, she shows her different phases. The moon is full when she is in opposition to the sun. This means that the three bodies are in a straight line, with the earth in the middle. She is new when she is in conjunction with the sun, meaning she is between the sun and the earth. Finally, she is in her first or last quarter when she forms an angle with the sun and the earth, with the moon herself at its point.

Regarding the altitude which the moon attains above the horizon, the letter of the Cambridge Observatory had said all that was to be said in this respect. Every one knew that this altitude varies according to the latitude of the observer. But the only zones of the globe in which the moon passes the zenith, that is, the point directly over the head of the spectator, are of necessity comprised between the twenty-eighth parallels and the equator. Hence the importance of the advice to try the experiment upon some point of that part of the globe, in order that the projectile might be discharged perpendicularly, and so the soonest escape the action of gravitation. This was an essential condition to the success of the enterprise, and continued actively to engage the public attention.

The letter from the Cambridge Observatory had said everything there was to say about the moon’s height above the horizon. Everyone knew that this height varies with the observer’s latitude. But the moon passes directly overhead, at the zenith, only in the parts of the globe between the equator and the twenty-eighth parallels. That was why the Observatory’s advice to conduct the experiment somewhere in that region was important. From there, the projectile could be fired straight up, so it would escape the pull of gravity as quickly as possible. This was essential to the success of the enterprise, and it continued to command public attention.

Regarding the path described by the moon in her revolution round the earth, the Cambridge Observatory had demonstrated that this path is a re-entering curve, not a perfect circle, but an ellipse, of which the earth occupies one of the foci. It was also well understood that it is farthest removed from the earth during its apogee, and approaches most nearly to it at its perigee.

The Cambridge Observatory had shown that the moon’s path around the earth is a closed curve. It is not a perfect circle but an ellipse, with the earth at one of its foci. It was also well understood that the moon is farthest from the earth at its apogee and closest at its perigee.

Such was then the extent of knowledge possessed by every American on the subject, and of which no one could decently profess ignorance. Still, while these principles were being rapidly disseminated many errors and illusory fears proved less easy to eradicate.

That was how much every American knew about the subject at the time. No one could respectably claim to be ignorant of it. Yet even as these principles spread quickly, many misconceptions and unfounded fears proved harder to eliminate.

For instance, some worthy persons maintained that the moon was an ancient comet which, in describing its elongated orbit round the sun, happened to pass near the earth, and became confined within her circle of attraction. These drawing-room astronomers professed to explain the charred aspect of the moon—a disaster which they attributed to the intensity of the solar heat; only, on being reminded that comets have an atmosphere, and that the moon has little or none, they were fairly at a loss for a reply.

For example, some respectable people claimed that the moon was an ancient comet. They said it had passed near Earth while traveling in its elongated orbit around the sun. It had then been trapped by Earth’s gravity. These armchair astronomers claimed to explain the moon’s charred appearance, which they blamed on the intense heat of the sun. But when reminded that comets have an atmosphere and the moon has little or none, they were at a loss for an answer.

Others again, belonging to the doubting class, expressed certain fears as to the position of the moon. They had heard it said that, according to observations made in the time of the Caliphs, her revolution had become accelerated in a certain degree. Hence they concluded, logically enough, that an acceleration of motion ought to be accompanied by a corresponding diminution in the distance separating the two bodies; and that, supposing the double effect to be continued to infinity, the moon would end by one day falling into the earth. However, they became reassured as to the fate of future generations on being apprised that, according to the calculations of Laplace, this acceleration of motion is confined within very restricted limits, and that a proportional diminution of speed will be certain to succeed it. So, then, the stability of the solar system would not be deranged in ages to come.

Others, who were more doubtful, expressed fears about the moon’s position. They had heard that, according to observations made in the time of the Caliphs, the moon’s orbit had sped up somewhat. From this, they concluded, logically enough, that the increase in speed must be matched by a decrease in the distance between the earth and the moon. If both effects continued indefinitely, the moon would eventually fall into the earth. However, their fears for future generations were eased when they learned of Laplace’s calculations. According to Laplace, the increase in speed is confined within very narrow limits. A proportional decrease in speed is certain to follow. The stability of the solar system would therefore remain undisturbed for ages to come.

There remains but the third class, the superstitious. These worthies were not content merely to rest in ignorance; they must know all about things which had no existence whatever, and as to the moon, they had long known all about her. One set regarded her disc as a polished mirror, by means of which people could see each other from different points of the earth and interchange their thoughts. Another set pretended that out of one thousand new moons that had been observed, nine hundred and fifty had been attended with remarkable disturbances, such as cataclysms, revolutions, earthquakes, the deluge, etc. Then they believed in some mysterious influence exercised by her over human destinies—that every Selenite was attached to some inhabitant of the earth by a tie of sympathy; they maintained that the entire vital system is subject to her control, etc. But in time the majority renounced these vulgar errors, and espoused the true side of the question. As for the Yankees, they had no other ambition than to take possession of this new continent of the sky, and to plant upon the summit of its highest elevation the star- spangled banner of the United States of America.

That leaves only the third group, the superstitious. These fine people were not content simply to remain ignorant. They had to know all about things that did not exist at all. As for the moon, they had long known all about her. One group saw her disc as a polished mirror. Through it, people in different parts of the earth could see each other and exchange thoughts. Another group claimed that 950 out of 1,000 observed new moons had brought remarkable disturbances. These included cataclysms, revolutions, earthquakes, the deluge, and so on. They also believed that the moon had a mysterious influence over human destinies. They believed that every Selenite was linked to an inhabitant of the earth by a bond of sympathy. They maintained that the moon controlled the entire vital system, and so on. But in time, most of them gave up these common errors and accepted the truth. As for the Yankees, their only ambition was to take possession of this new continent in the sky. They wanted to plant the star-spangled banner of the United States of America on its highest peak.