An Erewhonian Prophet's Views on Animal Rights

It will be seen from the foregoing chapters that the Erewhonians are a meek and long-suffering people, easily led by the nose, and quick to offer up common sense at the shrine of logic, when a philosopher arises among them, who carries them away through his reputation for especial learning, or by convincing them that their existing institutions are not based on the strictest principles of morality.

The previous chapters show that the Erewhonians are meek and patient. They are easily led by the nose and quick to sacrifice common sense at the altar of logic. This happens when a philosopher arises among them and wins them over with a reputation for special learning. Or he may convince them that their existing institutions are not based on the strictest moral principles.

The series of revolutions on which I shall now briefly touch shows this even more plainly than the way (already dealt with) in which at a later date they cut their throats in the matter of machinery; for if the second of the two reformers of whom I am about to speak had had his way—or rather the way that he professed to have—the whole race would have died of starvation within a twelve-month. Happily common sense, though she is by nature the gentlest creature living, when she feels the knife at her throat, is apt to develop unexpected powers of resistance, and to send doctrinaires flying, even when they have bound her down and think they have her at their mercy. What happened, so far as I could collect it from the best authorities, was as follows:-

The series of revolutions I will now briefly describe makes this even clearer. It shows this more plainly than the way they later cut their own throats over machinery, which I have already discussed. I am about to discuss two reformers. If the second had had his way, or rather the way he claimed to want, the whole race would have starved within a year. Fortunately, common sense is naturally the gentlest creature alive. Yet when she feels a knife at her throat, she can show unexpected powers of resistance. Even when dogmatists have tied her down and think she is at their mercy, she can send them flying. As far as I could learn from the best sources, this is what happened:

Some two thousand five hundred years ago the Erewhonians were still uncivilised, and lived by hunting, fishing, a rude system of agriculture, and plundering such few other nations as they had not yet completely conquered. They had no schools or systems of philosophy, but by a kind of dog-knowledge did that which was right in their own eyes and in those of their neighbours; the common sense, therefore, of the public being as yet unvitiated, crime and disease were looked upon much as they are in other countries.

About 2,500 years ago, the Erewhonians were still uncivilized. They lived by hunting, fishing, basic farming, and plundering the few other nations they had not yet completely conquered. They had no schools or systems of philosophy. Instead, guided by a kind of dog-knowledge, they did what seemed right to themselves and their neighbors. The public’s common sense had not yet been corrupted, so crime and disease were viewed much as they are in other countries.

But with the gradual advance of civilisation and increase in material prosperity, people began to ask questions about things that they had hitherto taken as matters of course, and one old gentleman, who had great influence over them by reason of the sanctity of his life, and his supposed inspiration by an unseen power, whose existence was now beginning to be felt, took it into his head to disquiet himself about the rights of animals—a question that so far had disturbed nobody.

But as civilization gradually advanced and material prosperity grew, people began to question things they had always taken for granted. One old gentleman had great influence over them because of his saintly life. People also believed he was inspired by an unseen power, whose existence they were just beginning to sense. This gentleman took it into his head to worry about animal rights, a question that had troubled nobody before.

All prophets are more or less fussy, and this old gentleman seems to have been one of the more fussy ones. Being maintained at the public expense, he had ample leisure, and not content with limiting his attention to the rights of animals, he wanted to reduce right and wrong to rules, to consider the foundations of duty and of good and evil, and otherwise to put all sorts of matters on a logical basis, which people whose time is money are content to accept on no basis at all.

All prophets are more or less fussy, and this old gentleman seems to have been one of the fussier ones. He was supported at public expense, so he had plenty of leisure. He was not content to focus on animal rights. He also wanted to reduce right and wrong to rules and examine the foundations of duty, good, and evil. He wanted to put all sorts of other matters on a logical footing, too. People whose time is money are content to accept such matters without any footing at all.

As a matter of course, the basis on which he decided that duty could alone rest was one that afforded no standing-room for many of the old-established habits of the people. These, he assured them, were all wrong, and whenever any one ventured to differ from him, he referred the matter to the unseen power with which he alone was in direct communication, and the unseen power invariably assured him that he was right. As regards the rights of animals he taught as follows:-

Naturally, he decided that duty could rest on only one foundation. That foundation left no room for many of the people’s long-established habits. He assured them that all these habits were wrong. Whenever anyone dared to disagree, he referred the matter to the unseen power. He alone was in direct communication with this power, and it always assured him that he was right. He taught the following about the rights of animals:

“You know, he said, “how wicked it is of you to kill one another. Once upon a time your fore-fathers made no scruple about not only killing, but also eating their relations. No one would now go back to such detestable practices, for it is notorious that we have lived much more happily since they were abandoned. From this increased prosperity we may confidently deduce the maxim that we should not kill and eat our fellow-creatures. I have consulted the higher power by whom you know that I am inspired, and he has assured me that this conclusion is irrefragable.

“You know, he said, “how wicked it is for you to kill one another. Once, your ancestors had no hesitation about killing and even eating their relatives. No one would now return to such horrible practices. It is well known that we have lived much more happily since they were abandoned. From this greater prosperity, we can confidently conclude that we should not kill and eat our fellow creatures. I have consulted the higher power who, as you know, inspires me. He has assured me that this conclusion cannot be disputed.

“Now it cannot be denied that sheep, cattle, deer, birds, and fishes are our fellow-creatures. They differ from us in some respects, but those in which they differ are few and secondary, while those that they have in common with us are many and essential. My friends, if it was wrong of you to kill and eat your fellow-men, it is wrong also to kill and eat fish, flesh, and fowl. Birds, beasts, and fishes, have as full a right to live as long as they can unmolested by man, as man has to live unmolested by his neighbours. These words, let me again assure you, are not mine, but those of the higher power which inspires me.

“Now, we cannot deny that sheep, cattle, deer, birds, and fish are our fellow creatures. They differ from us in a few minor ways. But they share many essential qualities with us. My friends, if it was wrong to kill and eat your fellow humans, it is also wrong to kill and eat fish, animals, and birds. Birds, animals, and fish have as much right to live undisturbed by humans for as long as they can. Humans have the same right to live undisturbed by their neighbors. Let me assure you again, these are not my words. They come from the higher power that inspires me.

“I grant,” he continued, “that animals molest one another, and that some of them go so far as to molest man, but I have yet to learn that we should model our conduct on that of the lower animals. We should endeavour, rather, to instruct them, and bring them to a better mind. To kill a tiger, for example, who has lived on the flesh of men and women whom he has killed, is to reduce ourselves to the level of the tiger, and is unworthy of people who seek to be guided by the highest principles in all, both their thoughts and actions.

“I admit,” he continued, “that animals harm one another, and that some even harm humans. But I have yet to learn why we should model our conduct on that of lower animals. Instead, we should try to teach them and persuade them to behave better. Take a tiger that has lived on the flesh of men and women it has killed. To kill that tiger is to reduce ourselves to its level. It is unworthy of people who seek to be guided by the highest principles in all their thoughts and actions.

“The unseen power who has revealed himself to me alone among you, has told me to tell you that you ought by this time to have outgrown the barbarous habits of your ancestors. If, as you believe, you know better than they, you should do better. He commands you, therefore, to refrain from killing any living being for the sake of eating it. The only animal food that you may eat, is the flesh of any birds, beasts, or fishes that you may come upon as having died a natural death, or any that may have been born prematurely, or so deformed that it is a mercy to put them out of their pain; you may also eat all such animals as have committed suicide. As regards vegetables you may eat all those that will let you eat them with impunity.”

“The unseen power has revealed himself to me alone among you. He has told me to say that you should have outgrown your ancestors’ barbaric habits by now. If you know better than they did, as you believe, you should do better. He therefore commands you not to kill any living creature for food. The only animal flesh you may eat is from birds, beasts, or fish that you find dead of natural causes. You may also eat those born prematurely, or so deformed that it is a mercy to end their suffering. You may also eat any animals that have killed themselves. As for vegetables, you may eat any that you can eat without harm.”

So wisely and so well did the old prophet argue, and so terrible were the threats he hurled at those who should disobey him, that in the end he carried the more highly educated part of the people with him, and presently the poorer classes followed suit, or professed to do so. Having seen the triumph of his principles, he was gathered to his fathers, and no doubt entered at once into full communion with that unseen power whose favour he had already so pre-eminently enjoyed.

The old prophet argued so wisely and well, and threatened those who disobeyed him so terribly, that he eventually won over the more educated people. Soon the poorer classes followed their lead, or claimed to. After seeing his principles triumph, he died. No doubt he immediately entered into full communion with the unseen power whose favor he had already enjoyed so greatly.

He had not, however, been dead very long, before some of his more ardent disciples took it upon them to better the instruction of their master. The old prophet had allowed the use of eggs and milk, but his disciples decided that to eat a fresh egg was to destroy a potential chicken, and that this came to much the same as murdering a live one. Stale eggs, if it was quite certain that they were too far gone to be able to be hatched, were grudgingly permitted, but all eggs offered for sale had to be submitted to an inspector, who, on being satisfied that they were addled, would label them “Laid not less than three months” from the date, whatever it might happen to be. These eggs, I need hardly say, were only used in puddings, and as a medicine in certain cases where an emetic was urgently required. Milk was forbidden inasmuch as it could not be obtained without robbing some calf of its natural sustenance, and thus endangering its life.

Not long after his death, however, some of his more zealous disciples took it upon themselves to improve their master's teaching. The old prophet had allowed people to eat eggs and drink milk. But his disciples decided that eating a fresh egg destroyed a potential chicken. They thought this was much the same as murdering a live one. They grudgingly permitted stale eggs, if it was certain that they were too old to hatch. But all eggs offered for sale had to be inspected. Once the inspector was satisfied that they were rotten, he would label them “Laid not less than three months” before whatever the current date happened to be. I hardly need say that these eggs were used only in puddings and as medicine when someone urgently needed to vomit. Milk was forbidden because it could not be obtained without robbing a calf of its natural food and thus endangering its life.

It will be easily believed that at first there were many who gave the new rules outward observance, but embraced every opportunity of indulging secretly in those flesh-pots to which they had been accustomed. It was found that animals were continually dying natural deaths under more or less suspicious circumstances. Suicidal mania, again, which had hitherto been confined exclusively to donkeys, became alarmingly prevalent even among such for the most part self-respecting creatures as sheep and cattle. It was astonishing how some of these unfortunate animals would scent out a butcher’s knife if there was one within a mile of them, and run right up against it if the butcher did not get it out of their way in time.

It is easy to believe that, at first, many people obeyed the new rules only in public. In secret, they seized every chance to enjoy the meat they were used to eating. Animals kept dying natural deaths under circumstances that were more or less suspicious. Suicidal mania, too, had previously been confined entirely to donkeys. Now it became alarmingly common even among sheep and cattle, animals that were generally self-respecting. Some of these unfortunate animals could astonishingly sniff out a butcher’s knife from a mile away. They would run straight into it if the butcher did not move it out of their way in time.

Dogs, again, that had been quite law-abiding as regards domestic poultry, tame rabbits, sucking pigs, or sheep and lambs, suddenly took to breaking beyond the control of their masters, and killing anything that they were told not to touch. It was held that any animal killed by a dog had died a natural death, for it was the dog’s nature to kill things, and he had only refrained from molesting farmyard creatures hitherto because his nature had been tampered with. Unfortunately the more these unruly tendencies became developed, the more the common people seemed to delight in breeding the very animals that would put temptation in the dog’s way. There is little doubt, in fact, that they were deliberately evading the law; but whether this was so or no they sold or ate everything their dogs had killed.

Dogs that had obeyed the law around domestic poultry, tame rabbits, suckling pigs, sheep, and lambs also suddenly broke free from their owners’ control. They killed anything they had been told not to touch. Any animal killed by a dog was said to have died a natural death. After all, it was in a dog’s nature to kill things. Dogs had only left farmyard animals alone until then because their nature had been tampered with. Unfortunately, as these unruly tendencies grew, the common people seemed to take more pleasure in breeding the very animals that would tempt the dogs. In fact, there is little doubt that the people were deliberately evading the law. But whether they were or not, they sold or ate everything their dogs had killed.

Evasion was more difficult in the case of the larger animals, for the magistrates could not wink at all the pretended suicides of pigs, sheep, and cattle that were brought before them. Sometimes they had to convict, and a few convictions had a very terrorising effect—whereas in the case of animals killed by a dog, the marks of the dog’s teeth could be seen, and it was practically impossible to prove malice on the part of the owner of the dog.

It was harder to get around the law with larger animals. The magistrates could not overlook all the supposed suicides of pigs, sheep, and cattle brought before them. Sometimes they had to convict, and a few convictions were enough to cause great fear. But when a dog killed an animal, its teeth marks could be seen. It was then practically impossible to prove that the dog’s owner had acted with malice.

Another fertile source of disobedience to the law was furnished by a decision of one of the judges that raised a great outcry among the more fervent disciples of the old prophet. The judge held that it was lawful to kill any animal in self-defence, and that such conduct was so natural on the part of a man who found himself attacked, that the attacking creature should be held to have died a natural death. The High Vegetarians had indeed good reason to be alarmed, for hardly had this decision become generally known before a number of animals, hitherto harmless, took to attacking their owners with such ferocity, that it became necessary to put them to a natural death. Again, it was quite common at that time to see the carcase of a calf, lamb, or kid exposed for sale with a label from the inspector certifying that it had been killed in self-defence. Sometimes even the carcase of a lamb or calf was exposed as “warranted still-born,” when it presented every appearance of having enjoyed at least a month of life.

Another major cause of disobedience to the law was a judge’s decision that caused an uproar among the old prophet’s more fervent followers. The judge ruled that it was legal to kill any animal in self-defense. He held that such conduct was so natural for a man under attack that the attacking animal should be judged to have died a natural death. The High Vegetarians had good reason to be alarmed. Hardly had the decision become widely known before a number of previously harmless animals began attacking their owners with such ferocity that it became necessary to put them to a natural death. It was also quite common at the time to see the carcass of a calf, lamb, or kid for sale with an inspector’s label certifying that it had been killed in self-defense. Sometimes even the carcass of a lamb or calf was offered for sale as “warranted still-born,” though it looked as if it had lived for at least a month.

As for the flesh of animals that had bona fide died a natural death, the permission to eat it was nugatory, for it was generally eaten by some other animal before man got hold of it; or failing this it was often poisonous, so that practically people were forced to evade the law by some of the means above spoken of, or to become vegetarians. This last alternative was so little to the taste of the Erewhonians, that the laws against killing animals were falling into desuetude, and would very likely have been repealed, but for the breaking out of a pestilence, which was ascribed by the priests and prophets of the day to the lawlessness of the people in the matter of eating forbidden flesh. On this, there was a reaction; stringent laws were passed, forbidding the use of meat in any form or shape, and permitting no food but grain, fruits, and vegetables to be sold in shops and markets. These laws were enacted about two hundred years after the death of the old prophet who had first unsettled people’s minds about the rights of animals; but they had hardly been passed before people again began to break them.

As for the meat of animals that had truly died a natural death, permission to eat it was useless. Another animal usually ate it before people could get hold of it. If not, the meat was often poisonous. So, in practice, people had to get around the law by some of the means mentioned above or become vegetarians. The Erewhonians liked vegetarianism so little that the laws against killing animals were falling out of use. The laws would very likely have been repealed, but a plague broke out. The priests and prophets of the day blamed it on people breaking the laws against eating forbidden meat. This led to a reaction. Strict laws were passed, forbidding meat in any form and allowing only grain, fruit, and vegetables to be sold in shops and markets. These laws were passed about two hundred years after the death of the old prophet who had first raised doubts about the rights of animals. But the laws had hardly been passed before people began to break them again.

I was told that the most painful consequence of all this folly did not lie in the fact that law-abiding people had to go without animal food—many nations do this and seem none the worse, and even in flesh-eating countries such as Italy, Spain, and Greece, the poor seldom see meat from year’s end to year’s end. The mischief lay in the jar which undue prohibition gave to the consciences of all but those who were strong enough to know that though conscience as a rule boons, it can also bane. The awakened conscience of an individual will often lead him to do things in haste that he had better have left undone, but the conscience of a nation awakened by a respectable old gentleman who has an unseen power up his sleeve will pave hell with a vengeance.

I was told that the worst result of all this folly was not that law-abiding people had to go without animal food. Many nations do this and seem none the worse for it. Even in meat-eating countries such as Italy, Spain, and Greece, the poor rarely see meat all year long. The real harm was the shock that excessive prohibition gave to people’s consciences. Only those strong enough to understand that conscience usually helps but can also harm were spared. An individual whose conscience has been stirred will often act hastily when he would have been better off doing nothing. But when a respectable old gentleman with a hidden power up his sleeve stirs a nation’s conscience, it will pave hell with a vengeance.

Young people were told that it was a sin to do what their fathers had done unhurt for centuries; those, moreover, who preached to them about the enormity of eating meat, were an unattractive academic folk, and though they over-awed all but the bolder youths, there were few who did not in their hearts dislike them. However much the young person might be shielded, he soon got to know that men and women of the world—often far nicer people than the prophets who preached abstention—continually spoke sneeringly of the new doctrinaire laws, and were believed to set them aside in secret, though they dared not do so openly. Small wonder, then, that the more human among the student classes were provoked by the touch-not, taste-not, handle-not precepts of their rulers, into questioning much that they would otherwise have unhesitatingly accepted.

Young people were told it was a sin to do what their fathers had done for centuries without harm. Those who preached about the terrible wrong of eating meat were an unattractive group of academics. They intimidated all but the bolder youths, but almost everyone secretly disliked them. However sheltered a young person might be, he soon learned what worldly men and women thought. These people were often much nicer than the prophets who preached abstinence. They constantly sneered at the new rigid laws and were believed to break them in secret, though they dared not do so openly. Small wonder, then, that the more human students were provoked by their rulers’ rules against touching, tasting, and handling. They began to question much that they would otherwise have accepted without hesitation.

One sad story is on record about a young man of promising amiable disposition, but cursed with more conscience than brains, who had been told by his doctor (for as I have above said disease was not yet held to be criminal) that he ought to eat meat, law or no law. He was much shocked and for some time refused to comply with what he deemed the unrighteous advice given him by his doctor; at last, however, finding that he grew weaker and weaker, he stole secretly on a dark night into one of those dens in which meat was surreptitiously sold, and bought a pound of prime steak. He took it home, cooked it in his bedroom when every one in the house had gone to rest, ate it, and though he could hardly sleep for remorse and shame, felt so much better next morning that he hardly knew himself.

One sad story is recorded about a promising young man with a pleasant nature, but cursed with more conscience than brains. His doctor had told him that he should eat meat, whether the law allowed it or not. As I have said above, disease was not yet considered a crime. The young man was deeply shocked and refused for some time to follow what he considered his doctor’s immoral advice. At last, though, he found himself growing weaker and weaker. So one dark night, he secretly slipped into one of those dens where meat was sold illegally and bought a pound of prime steak. He took it home and cooked it in his bedroom after everyone in the house had gone to bed. He ate the steak, and though remorse and shame kept him awake for most of the night, he felt so much better the next morning that he hardly knew himself.

Three or four days later, he again found himself irresistibly drawn to this same den. Again he bought a pound of steak, again he cooked and ate it, and again, in spite of much mental torture, on the following morning felt himself a different man. To cut the story short, though he never went beyond the bounds of moderation, it preyed upon his mind that he should be drifting, as he certainly was, into the ranks of the habitual law-breakers.

Three or four days later, he again felt irresistibly drawn to the same den. Again he bought a pound of steak, cooked it, and ate it. And again, despite much mental anguish, he felt like a different man the next morning. To cut the story short, he never ate more than he should. Even so, it troubled him that he was drifting into the ranks of habitual lawbreakers, as he certainly was.

All the time his health kept on improving, and though he felt sure that he owed this to the beefsteaks, the better he became in body, the more his conscience gave him no rest; two voices were for ever ringing in his ears—the one saying, “I am Common Sense and Nature; heed me, and I will reward you as I rewarded your fathers before you.” But the other voice said: “Let not that plausible spirit lure you to your ruin. I am Duty; heed me, and I will reward you as I rewarded your fathers before you.”

All the while, his health kept improving, and he felt sure he owed it to the beefsteaks. But the better his body felt, the less peace his conscience gave him. Two voices were always ringing in his ears. One said, “I am Common Sense and Nature. Listen to me, and I will reward you as I rewarded your fathers before you.” But the other voice said, “Do not let that convincing spirit lure you to your ruin. I am Duty. Listen to me, and I will reward you as I rewarded your fathers before you.”

Sometimes he even seemed to see the faces of the speakers. Common Sense looked so easy, genial, and serene, so frank and fearless, that do what he might he could not mistrust her; but as he was on the point of following her, he would be checked by the austere face of Duty, so grave, but yet so kindly; and it cut him to the heart that from time to time he should see her turn pitying away from him as he followed after her rival.

Sometimes he even seemed to see the speakers’ faces. Common Sense looked so relaxed, friendly, and calm, so open and fearless, that he could not distrust her, however hard he tried. But just as he was about to follow her, the stern face of Duty held him back. She looked so serious, yet so kind. It broke his heart to see her turn away from him in pity whenever he followed her rival.

The poor boy continually thought of the better class of his fellow-students, and tried to model his conduct on what he thought was theirs. “They,” he said to himself, “eat a beefsteak? Never.” But they most of them ate one now and again, unless it was a mutton chop that tempted them. And they used him for a model much as he did them. “He,” they would say to themselves, “eat a mutton chop? Never.” One night, however, he was followed by one of the authorities, who was always prowling about in search of law-breakers, and was caught coming out of the den with half a shoulder of mutton concealed about his person. On this, even though he had not been put in prison, he would have been sent away with his prospects in life irretrievably ruined; he therefore hanged himself as soon as he got home.

The poor boy constantly thought about the better class of his fellow students. He tried to behave as he thought they did. “They,” he said to himself, “eat a beefsteak? Never.” But most of them ate one now and then, unless a mutton chop tempted them instead. And they took him as a model, just as he did them. “He,” they would say to themselves, “eat a mutton chop? Never.” One night, however, he was followed by one of the authorities, who was always prowling around looking for lawbreakers. The boy was caught coming out of the den with half a shoulder of mutton hidden on him. Even if he had not been imprisoned, he would have been sent away. His prospects in life would have been ruined beyond repair. So he hanged himself as soon as he got home.