The Colleges of Unreason, Continued

Of genius they make no account, for they say that every one is a genius, more or less. No one is so physically sound that no part of him will be even a little unsound, and no one is so diseased but that some part of him will be healthy—so no man is so mentally and morally sound, but that he will be in part both mad and wicked; and no man is so mad and wicked but he will be sensible and honourable in part. In like manner there is no genius who is not also a fool, and no fool who is not also a genius.

They pay no attention to genius, because they say everyone is a genius, more or less. No one is so physically healthy that every part of them is completely sound. And no one is so sick that no part of them is healthy. Likewise, no one is so mentally and morally sound that they are not partly mad and wicked. And no one is so mad and wicked that they are not partly sensible and honorable. In the same way, every genius is also a fool, and every fool is also a genius.

When I talked about originality and genius to some gentlemen whom I met at a supper party given by Mr. Thims in my honour, and said that original thought ought to be encouraged, I had to eat my words at once. Their view evidently was that genius was like offences—needs must that it come, but woe unto that man through whom it comes. A man’s business, they hold, is to think as his neighbours do, for Heaven help him if he thinks good what they count bad. And really it is hard to see how the Erewhonian theory differs from our own, for the word “idiot” only means a person who forms his opinions for himself.

At a supper party Mr. Thims gave in my honor, I talked with some gentlemen about originality and genius. I said that original thought should be encouraged, but I had to take back my words at once. They evidently thought genius was like wrongdoing: it must come, but woe to the man through whom it comes. They held that a man’s business was to think as his neighbors do. Heaven help him if he thinks good what they count bad. And really, it is hard to see how the Erewhonian theory differs from our own. After all, the word “idiot” just means a person who forms his own opinions.

The venerable Professor of Worldly Wisdom, a man verging on eighty but still hale, spoke to me very seriously on this subject in consequence of the few words that I had imprudently let fall in defence of genius. He was one of those who carried most weight in the university, and had the reputation of having done more perhaps than any other living man to suppress any kind of originality.

The respected Professor of Worldly Wisdom was nearly eighty but still healthy. He spoke to me very seriously about this subject because I had unwisely said a few words in defence of genius. He was one of the most influential people at the university. He had a reputation for having done perhaps more than any other living person to suppress originality of any kind.

“It is not our business,” he said, “to help students to think for themselves. Surely this is the very last thing which one who wishes them well should encourage them to do. Our duty is to ensure that they shall think as we do, or at any rate, as we hold it expedient to say we do.” In some respects, however, he was thought to hold somewhat radical opinions, for he was President of the Society for the Suppression of Useless Knowledge, and for the Completer Obliteration of the Past.

“It is not our job,” he said, “to help students think for themselves. Surely anyone who wants the best for them should discourage that above all else. Our duty is to make sure they think as we do. Or at least they should think as we find it useful to say we do.” In some ways, however, he was thought to have rather radical views. He was President of the Society for the Suppression of Useless Knowledge, and for the Completer Obliteration of the Past.

As regards the tests that a youth must pass before he can get a degree, I found that they have no class lists, and discourage anything like competition among the students; this, indeed, they regard as self-seeking and unneighbourly. The examinations are conducted by way of papers written by the candidate on set subjects, some of which are known to him beforehand, while others are devised with a view of testing his general capacity and savoir faire.

I found that students must pass tests to earn a degree, but there are no lists ranking them by performance. Competition among students is discouraged. Indeed, they regard it as selfish and unneighborly. For the exams, each student writes papers on assigned subjects. Some subjects are known to the student beforehand. Others are designed to test the student's general ability and savoir faire.

My friend the Professor of Worldly Wisdom was the terror of the greater number of students; and, so far as I could judge, he very well might be, for he had taken his Professorship more seriously than any of the other Professors had done. I heard of his having plucked one poor fellow for want of sufficient vagueness in his saving clauses paper. Another was sent down for having written an article on a scientific subject without having made free enough use of the words “carefully,” “patiently,” and “earnestly.” One man was refused a degree for being too often and too seriously in the right, while a few days before I came a whole batch had been plucked for insufficient distrust of printed matter.

My friend the Professor of Worldly Wisdom terrified most of the students. As far as I could tell, they had good reason to fear him. He took his Professorship more seriously than any of the other Professors did. I heard that he had failed one poor fellow for not being vague enough in his paper on saving clauses. Another student was expelled for writing an article on a scientific subject without using the words “carefully,” “patiently,” and “earnestly” often enough. One man was refused a degree for being right too often and too seriously. A few days before I arrived, a whole group had been failed for not being distrustful enough of printed matter.

About this there was just then rather a ferment, for it seems that the Professor had written an article in the leading university magazine, which was well known to be by him, and which abounded in all sorts of plausible blunders. He then set a paper which afforded the examinees an opportunity of repeating these blunders—which, believing the article to be by their own examiner, they of course did. The Professor plucked every single one of them, but his action was considered to have been not quite handsome.

There was quite a stir about this at the time. The Professor had written an article in the leading university magazine. It was well known that he was its author, and the article was full of all sorts of plausible mistakes. He then set an exam that gave the students a chance to repeat these mistakes. Believing the article was by their own examiner, they naturally did just that. The Professor failed every single one of them, but his conduct was thought to be rather unfair.

I told them of Homer’s noble line to the effect that a man should strive ever to be foremost and in all things to outvie his peers; but they said that no wonder the countries in which such a detestable maxim was held in admiration were always flying at one another’s throats.

I told them about Homer’s noble line, which says a man should always strive to be first and surpass his peers in everything. But they said it was no wonder that countries which admired such a hateful saying were always at each other’s throats.

“Why,” asked one Professor, “should a man want to be better than his neighbours? Let him be thankful if he is no worse.”

“Why,” asked one professor, “would a man want to be better than his neighbors? He should be thankful if he is no worse.”

I ventured feebly to say that I did not see how progress could be made in any art or science, or indeed in anything at all, without more or less self-seeking, and hence unamiability.

I timidly said I did not see how anyone could make progress in art, science, or anything else without being at least somewhat self-seeking, and therefore unkind.

“Of course it cannot,” said the Professor, “and therefore we object to progress.”

“Of course it can’t,” said the Professor, “and that’s why we oppose progress.”

After which there was no more to be said. Later on, however, a young Professor took me aside and said he did not think I quite understood their views about progress.

After that, there was nothing more to say. Later, however, a young professor took me aside. He said he did not think I quite understood their views about progress.

“We like progress,” he said, “but it must commend itself to the common sense of the people. If a man gets to know more than his neighbours he should keep his knowledge to himself till he has sounded them, and seen whether they agree, or are likely to agree with him. He said it was as immoral to be too far in front of one’s own age, as to lag too far behind it. If a man can carry his neighbours with him, he may say what he likes; but if not, what insult can be more gratuitous than the telling them what they do not want to know? A man should remember that intellectual over-indulgence is one of the most insidious and disgraceful forms that excess can take. Granted that every one should exceed more or less, inasmuch as absolutely perfect sanity would drive any man mad the moment he reached it, but . . . ”

“We like progress,” he said, “but it must make sense to ordinary people. If a man knows more than his neighbors, he should keep it to himself at first. He should find out whether they agree with him, or are likely to.” He said it was just as immoral to be too far ahead of your own age as too far behind it. If a man can bring his neighbors along with him, he can say what he likes. But if he cannot, what insult could be more needless than telling them what they do not want to know? A man should remember that indulging too much in intellectual pursuits is one of the most subtle and shameful forms of excess. Granted, everyone should indulge in excess to some degree. After all, perfect sanity would drive any man mad the moment he achieved it. But . . . ”

He was now warming to his subject and I was beginning to wonder how I should get rid of him, when the party broke up, and though I promised to call on him before I left, I was unfortunately prevented from doing so.

He was getting more enthusiastic about his subject, and I was beginning to wonder how to get rid of him. Then the party broke up. Though I promised to visit him before I left, I was unfortunately unable to do so.

I have now said enough to give English readers some idea of the strange views which the Erewhonians hold concerning unreason, hypothetics, and education generally. In many respects they were sensible enough, but I could not get over the hypothetics, especially the turning their own good poetry into the hypothetical language. In the course of my stay I met one youth who told me that for fourteen years the hypothetical language had been almost the only thing that he had been taught, although he had never (to his credit, as it seemed to me) shown the slightest proclivity towards it, while he had been endowed with not inconsiderable ability for several other branches of human learning. He assured me that he would never open another hypothetical book after he had taken his degree, but would follow out the bent of his own inclinations. This was well enough, but who could give him his fourteen years back again?

I have now said enough to give English readers some idea of the strange views the Erewhonians hold about unreason, hypothetics, and education in general. In many respects they were sensible enough. But I could not get over the hypothetics, especially their practice of translating their own good poetry into the hypothetical language. During my stay, I met a young man who told me that for fourteen years he had been taught almost nothing but the hypothetical language. He had never shown the slightest inclination for it. To me, that seemed to his credit. Yet he had considerable ability in several other branches of learning. He assured me that, after taking his degree, he would never open another hypothetical book. He would follow his own interests instead. That was well enough, but who could give him his fourteen years back?

I sometimes wondered how it was that the mischief done was not more clearly perceptible, and that the young men and women grew up as sensible and goodly as they did, in spite of the attempts almost deliberately made to warp and stunt their growth. Some doubtless received damage, from which they suffered to their life’s end; but many seemed little or none the worse, and some, almost the better. The reason would seem to be that the natural instinct of the lads in most cases so absolutely rebelled against their training, that do what the teachers might they could never get them to pay serious heed to it. The consequence was that the boys only lost their time, and not so much of this as might have been expected, for in their hours of leisure they were actively engaged in exercises and sports which developed their physical nature, and made them at any rate strong and healthy.

I sometimes wondered why the harm was not more obvious. Despite the almost deliberate attempts to twist and stunt their growth, the young men and women grew up surprisingly sensible and healthy. Some were no doubt harmed and suffered for the rest of their lives. But many seemed little worse off, if at all, and some almost seemed better off. The reason seems to be that, in most cases, the boys’ natural instincts rebelled completely against their training. Whatever the teachers did, they could never get the boys to take it seriously. As a result, the boys only wasted their time. And they wasted less time than might have been expected. In their free hours, they took an active part in exercise and sports, which developed their bodies and at least made them strong and healthy.

Moreover those who had any special tastes could not be restrained from developing them: they would learn what they wanted to learn and liked, in spite of obstacles which seemed rather to urge them on than to discourage them, while for those who had no special capacity, the loss of time was of comparatively little moment; but in spite of these alleviations of the mischief, I am sure that much harm was done to the children of the sub-wealthy classes, by the system which passes current among the Erewhonians as education. The poorest children suffered least—if destruction and death have heard the sound of wisdom, to a certain extent poverty has done so also.

Moreover, those with special interests could not be stopped from developing them. They learned what they wanted and liked to learn, despite obstacles that seemed to spur them on rather than discourage them. For those with no special ability, the loss of time mattered relatively little. But despite these mitigating factors, I am sure the system the Erewhonians call education did much harm to children of the less wealthy classes. The poorest children suffered least. If destruction and death have heard the sound of wisdom, poverty has also heard it to some extent.

And yet perhaps, after all, it is better for a country that its seats of learning should do more to suppress mental growth than to encourage it. Were it not for a certain priggishness which these places infuse into so great a number of their alumni, genuine work would become dangerously common. It is essential that by far the greater part of what is said or done in the world should be so ephemeral as to take itself away quickly; it should keep good for twenty-four hours, or even twice as long, but it should not be good enough a week hence to prevent people from going on to something else. No doubt the marvellous development of journalism in England, as also the fact that our seats of learning aim rather at fostering mediocrity than anything higher, is due to our subconscious recognition of the fact that it is even more necessary to check exuberance of mental development than to encourage it. There can be no doubt that this is what our academic bodies do, and they do it the more effectually because they do it only subconsciously. They think they are advancing healthy mental assimilation and digestion, whereas in reality they are little better than cancer in the stomach.

And yet, perhaps a country is better off when its universities suppress mental growth rather than encourage it. These institutions instill a certain self-important smugness in a great many of their alumni. Without that smugness, genuine work would become dangerously common. It is essential that most of what is said or done in the world should be short-lived and quickly forgotten. It should remain useful for twenty-four hours, or even twice that long. But it should not be good enough a week later to stop people from moving on to something else. No doubt the remarkable growth of journalism in England reflects our subconscious recognition of a fact. It is even more necessary to restrain excessive mental development than to encourage it. The same recognition no doubt explains why our universities aim to foster mediocrity rather than anything higher. There can be no doubt that our academic institutions restrain mental development. They do it all the more effectively because they do it only subconsciously. They think they are helping minds absorb and digest ideas in a healthy way. In reality, they are little better than cancer in the stomach.

Let me return, however, to the Erewhonians. Nothing surprised me more than to see the occasional flashes of common sense with which one branch of study or another was lit up, while not a single ray fell upon so many others. I was particularly struck with this on strolling into the Art School of the University. Here I found that the course of study was divided into two branches—the practical and the commercial—no student being permitted to continue his studies in the actual practice of the art he had taken up, unless he made equal progress in its commercial history.

Let me return, however, to the Erewhonians. Nothing surprised me more than their occasional flashes of common sense in one field of study or another. Yet so many other fields received not a single ray of it. I was especially struck by this when I wandered into the University’s Art School. There I found that the course was divided into two branches: practical and commercial. Students could continue practicing their chosen art only if they made equal progress in studying its commercial history.

Thus those who were studying painting were examined at frequent intervals in the prices which all the leading pictures of the last fifty or a hundred years had realised, and in the fluctuations in their values when (as often happened) they had been sold and resold three or four times. The artist, they contend, is a dealer in pictures, and it is as important for him to learn how to adapt his wares to the market, and to know approximately what kind of a picture will fetch how much, as it is for him to be able to paint the picture. This, I suppose, is what the French mean by laying so much stress upon “values.”

Thus, painting students were frequently tested on the prices paid for all the leading paintings of the past fifty or hundred years. They were also tested on changes in the paintings’ values when they were sold and resold three or four times. This often happened. They argue that an artist is a picture dealer. It is as important for him to learn how to adapt his goods to the market as to paint a picture. He must also know approximately how much each kind of picture will sell for. I suppose this is what the French mean by placing so much emphasis on “values.”

As regards the city itself, the more I saw the more enchanted I became. I dare not trust myself with any description of the exquisite beauty of the different colleges, and their walks and gardens. Truly in these things alone there must be a hallowing and refining influence which is in itself half an education, and which no amount of error can wholly spoil. I was introduced to many of the Professors, who showed me every hospitality and kindness; nevertheless I could hardly avoid a sort of suspicion that some of those whom I was taken to see had been so long engrossed in their own study of hypothetics that they had become the exact antitheses of the Athenians in the days of St. Paul; for whereas the Athenians spent their lives in nothing save to see and to hear some new thing, there were some here who seemed to devote themselves to the avoidance of every opinion with which they were not perfectly familiar, and regarded their own brains as a sort of sanctuary, to which if an opinion had once resorted, none other was to attack it.

As for the city itself, the more I saw, the more enchanted I became. I dare not attempt to describe the exquisite beauty of the colleges, their paths, and their gardens. Surely these things alone have a sacred and refining influence that is half an education in itself. No amount of error can wholly spoil that influence. I was introduced to many of the Professors, who treated me with every hospitality and kindness. Nevertheless, I could hardly avoid a suspicion about some of those I was taken to see. They had been absorbed in their own study of hypothetics for so long that they had become the exact opposite of the Athenians in the days of St. Paul. The Athenians spent their lives doing nothing but seeing and hearing something new. But some people here seemed devoted to avoiding every opinion they were not already perfectly familiar with. They treated their own brains as a kind of sanctuary. Once an opinion had taken refuge there, no other opinion was allowed to attack it.

I should warn the reader, however, that I was rarely sure what the men whom I met while staying with Mr. Thims really meant; for there was no getting anything out of them if they scented even a suspicion that they might be what they call “giving themselves away.” As there is hardly any subject on which this suspicion cannot arise, I found it difficult to get definite opinions from any of them, except on such subjects as the weather, eating and drinking, holiday excursions, or games of skill.

I should warn the reader, though, that I was rarely sure what the men I met while staying with Mr. Thims really meant. You could get nothing out of them if they even suspected they might be what they called “giving themselves away.” That suspicion could arise on almost any subject. So I found it difficult to get definite opinions from any of them, except about the weather, eating and drinking, holiday trips, or games of skill.

If they cannot wriggle out of expressing an opinion of some sort, they will commonly retail those of some one who has already written upon the subject, and conclude by saying that though they quite admit that there is an element of truth in what the writer has said, there are many points on which they are unable to agree with him. Which these points were, I invariably found myself unable to determine; indeed, it seemed to be counted the perfection of scholarship and good breeding among them not to have—much less to express—an opinion on any subject on which it might prove later that they had been mistaken. The art of sitting gracefully on a fence has never, I should think, been brought to greater perfection than at the Erewhonian Colleges of Unreason.

If they cannot avoid expressing some kind of opinion, they usually repeat the views of someone who has already written on the subject. They conclude by admitting that there is some truth in what the writer said. But they add that there are many points on which they cannot agree with him. I could never discover what those points were. Indeed, among them, the height of scholarship and good manners seemed to be having no opinion on any subject where they might later be proved wrong. Expressing such an opinion was even worse. I doubt the art of sitting gracefully on a fence has ever been perfected more fully than at the Erewhonian Colleges of Unreason.

Even when, wriggle as they may, they find themselves pinned down to some expression of definite opinion, as often as not they will argue in support of what they perfectly well know to be untrue. I repeatedly met with reviews and articles even in their best journals, between the lines of which I had little difficulty in detecting a sense exactly contrary to the one ostensibly put forward. So well is this understood, that a man must be a mere tyro in the arts of Erewhonian polite society, unless he instinctively suspects a hidden “yea” in every “nay” that meets him. Granted that it comes to much the same in the end, for it does not matter whether “yea” is called “yea” or “nay,” so long as it is understood which it is to be; but our own more direct way of calling a spade a spade, rather than a rake, with the intention that every one should understand it as a spade, seems more satisfactory. On the other hand, the Erewhonian system lends itself better to the suppression of that downrightness which it seems the express aim of Erewhonian philosophy to discountenance.

Even when they cannot wriggle out of expressing a definite opinion, they often argue for what they know perfectly well is untrue. I repeatedly came across reviews and articles, even in their best journals, that clearly meant the opposite of what they seemed to say. This is so well understood that anyone who does not instinctively suspect a hidden “yes” in every “no” is a mere beginner in Erewhonian polite society. Granted, it comes to much the same thing in the end. It does not matter whether “yes” is called “yes” or “no,” as long as everyone understands which it means. But our own more direct way seems more satisfactory. We call a spade a spade, rather than a rake, intending everyone to understand that we mean a spade. On the other hand, the Erewhonian system is better suited to suppressing directness, which Erewhonian philosophy seems expressly designed to discourage.

However this may be, the fear-of-giving-themselves-away disease was fatal to the intelligence of those infected by it, and almost every one at the Colleges of Unreason had caught it to a greater or less degree. After a few years atrophy of the opinions invariably supervened, and the sufferer became stone dead to everything except the more superficial aspects of those material objects with which he came most in contact. The expression on the faces of these people was repellent; they did not, however, seem particularly unhappy, for they none of them had the faintest idea that they were in reality more dead than alive. No cure for this disgusting fear-of-giving-themselves-away disease has yet been discovered.

Whatever the truth may be, the fear-of-giving-themselves-away disease destroyed the intelligence of those it infected. Almost everyone at the Colleges of Unreason had caught it to some degree. After a few years, their opinions inevitably withered away. They became completely dead to everything except the most superficial features of the material objects they encountered most often. The expressions on their faces were repellent. Yet they did not seem particularly unhappy. None of them had the faintest idea that they were really more dead than alive. No cure for this disgusting fear-of-giving-themselves-away disease has yet been discovered.

* * *

* * *

It was during my stay in City of the Colleges of Unreason—a city whose Erewhonian name is so cacophonous that I refrain from giving it—that I learned the particulars of the revolution which had ended in the destruction of so many of the mechanical inventions which were formerly in common use.

During my stay in City of the Colleges of Unreason, I learned the details of a revolution. The city’s Erewhonian name sounds so harsh that I will not give it. The revolution had ended with the destruction of many mechanical inventions that had once been in common use.

Mr. Thims took me to the rooms of a gentleman who had a great reputation for learning, but who was also, so Mr. Thims told me, rather a dangerous person, inasmuch as he had attempted to introduce an adverb into the hypothetical language. He had heard of my watch and been exceedingly anxious to see me, for he was accounted the most learned antiquary in Erewhon on the subject of mechanical lore. We fell to talking upon the subject, and when I left he gave me a reprinted copy of the work which brought the revolution about.

Mr. Thims took me to the rooms of a man who was famous for his learning. But Mr. Thims also told me that the man was rather dangerous. He had tried to introduce an adverb into the hypothetical language. He had heard about my watch and was extremely eager to see me. He was regarded as the most learned scholar of ancient mechanical knowledge in Erewhon. We began talking about the subject, and when I left, he gave me a reprinted copy of the work that brought about the revolution.

It had taken place some five hundred years before my arrival: people had long become thoroughly used to the change, although at the time that it was made the country was plunged into the deepest misery, and a reaction which followed had very nearly proved successful. Civil war raged for many years, and is said to have reduced the number of the inhabitants by one-half. The parties were styled the machinists and the anti-machinists, and in the end, as I have said already, the latter got the victory, treating their opponents with such unparalleled severity that they extirpated every trace of opposition.

It had happened about five hundred years before I arrived. People had long since become thoroughly used to the change. But when it was made, the country was plunged into the deepest misery. A reaction followed that came very close to succeeding. Civil war raged for many years and is said to have cut the population in half. The two sides were called the machinists and the anti-machinists. In the end, as I have already said, the anti-machinists won. They treated their opponents with such unparalleled severity that they wiped out every trace of opposition.

The wonder was that they allowed any mechanical appliances to remain in the kingdom, neither do I believe that they would have done so, had not the Professors of Inconsistency and Evasion made a stand against the carrying of the new principles to their legitimate conclusions. These Professors, moreover, insisted that during the struggle the anti-machinists should use every known improvement in the art of war, and several new weapons, offensive and defensive, were invented, while it was in progress. I was surprised at there remaining so many mechanical specimens as are seen in the museums, and at students having rediscovered their past uses so completely; for at the time of the revolution the victors wrecked all the more complicated machines, and burned all treatises on mechanics, and all engineers’ workshops—thus, so they thought, cutting the mischief out root and branch, at an incalculable cost of blood and treasure.

It was surprising that they allowed any mechanical devices to remain in the kingdom. I do not believe they would have done so if the Professors of Inconsistency and Evasion had not objected to taking the new principles to their logical conclusions. These Professors also insisted that, during the struggle, the anti-machinists should use every known improvement in warfare. Several new weapons, both offensive and defensive, were invented while the struggle was going on. I was surprised that so many examples of machinery remained in the museums, and that students had so completely rediscovered their former uses. For during the revolution, the victors destroyed all the more complicated machines. They also burned all books on mechanics and all engineers’ workshops. They thought they had cut out the evil root and branch, at an incalculable cost in blood and treasure.

Certainly they had not spared their labour, but work of this description can never be perfectly achieved, and when, some two hundred years before my arrival, all passion upon the subject had cooled down, and no one save a lunatic would have dreamed of reintroducing forbidden inventions, the subject came to be regarded as a curious antiquarian study, like that of some long-forgotten religious practices among ourselves. Then came the careful search for whatever fragments could be found, and for any machines that might have been hidden away, and also numberless treatises were written, showing what the functions of each rediscovered machine had been; all being done with no idea of using such machinery again, but with the feelings of an English antiquarian concerning Druidical monuments or flint arrow heads.

Certainly they had spared no effort, but work of this kind can never be perfectly completed. Some two hundred years before my arrival, all passion about the subject had cooled. By then, only a lunatic would have dreamed of bringing back the forbidden inventions. The subject came to be regarded as a curious study of the past. It was like the study of some long-forgotten religious practices among ourselves. People then carefully searched for whatever fragments they could find and for any machines that might have been hidden away. Countless treatises were also written, explaining what each rediscovered machine had been used for. None of this was done with any thought of using such machinery again. Rather, it was done in the spirit of an English antiquarian studying Druidical monuments or flint arrowheads.

On my return to the metropolis, during the remaining weeks or rather days of my sojourn in Erewhon I made a resumé in English of the work which brought about the already mentioned revolution. My ignorance of technical terms has led me doubtless into many errors, and I have occasionally, where I found translation impossible, substituted purely English names and ideas for the original Erewhonian ones, but the reader may rely on my general accuracy. I have thought it best to insert my translation here.

When I returned to the capital, I had only a few weeks, or rather days, left in Erewhon. During that time, I wrote an English summary of the work that brought about the revolution I mentioned earlier. My lack of technical knowledge has doubtless led me to make many errors. Occasionally, where I found translation impossible, I substituted purely English names and ideas for the original Erewhonian ones. But the reader can rely on my general accuracy. I thought it best to include my translation here.