Part 4

Expressions which are in no way composite signify substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, or affection. To sketch my meaning roughly, examples of substance are 'man' or 'the horse', of quantity, such terms as 'two cubits long' or 'three cubits long', of quality, such attributes as 'white', 'grammatical'. 'Double', 'half', 'greater', fall under the category of relation; 'in the market place', 'in the Lyceum', under that of place; 'yesterday', 'last year', under that of time. 'Lying', 'sitting', are terms indicating position, 'shod', 'armed', state; 'to lance', 'to cauterize', action; 'to be lanced', 'to be cauterized', affection.

Expressions that are not combined with others signify substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, or being acted upon. The following examples give a rough idea of what I mean. Examples of substance are 'man' or 'the horse'. Examples of quantity are terms such as 'two cubits long' or 'three cubits long'. Examples of quality are attributes such as 'white' and 'grammatical'. 'Double', 'half', and 'greater' fall under relation. 'In the market place' and 'in the Lyceum' fall under place. 'Yesterday' and 'last year' fall under time. 'Lying' and 'sitting' indicate position. 'Shod' and 'armed' indicate state. 'To lance' and 'to cauterize' indicate action. 'To be lanced' and 'to be cauterized' indicate being acted upon.

No one of these terms, in and by itself, involves an affirmation; it is by the combination of such terms that positive or negative statements arise. For every assertion must, as is admitted, be either true or false, whereas expressions which are not in any way composite such as 'man', 'white', 'runs', 'wins', cannot be either true or false.

None of these terms, on its own, affirms anything. Positive or negative statements arise only when such terms are combined. For every assertion, as everyone agrees, must be either true or false. But single expressions such as 'man', 'white', 'runs', and 'wins' cannot be either true or false.