Introduction

‘Beowulf’ may rightly be pronounced the great national epic of the Anglo-Saxon race. Not that it exalts the race so much as that it presents the spirit of the Anglo-Saxon peoples, the ideals and aims, the manners and customs, of our ancestors, and that it does so in setting before us a great national hero. Beowulf himself was not an Anglo-Saxon. He was a Geat-Dane; but he belonged to that confraternity of nations that composed the Teutonic people. He lived in an heroic age, when the songs of the wandering singers were of the great deeds of outstanding men. The absolute epic of the English people has yet to be written. To some extent Arthur, though a British King—that is to say, though he was King of the Celtic British people, who were subsequently driven into the West, into Cornwall and Wales and Strathclyde, by our Saxon ancestors—became nationalized by our Anglo-Norman ancestors as a typical King of the English people. He has become the epic King of the English in the poetry of Tennyson. It is always a mystery to the writer that no competent singer among us has ever laid hands upon our own Saxon hero, King Alfred. It is sometimes said that there is nothing new under the sun, that there is nothing left for the modern singer to sing about, and that the realm of possible musical production is fast vanishing out of view. Certainly this is not true of poetry. Both Alfred and Arthur are waiting for the sympathetic voice that will tell forth to the world the immortal splendour of their personalities. And just as the Anglo-Normans idealized Arthur as a hero-king of the English nation, though he really fought against the English, so the Saxon singer of Beowulf has idealized this Geatish chieftain, and in some way set him forth as the idealized chieftain of the Teutonic race.

‘Beowulf’ may rightly be called the great national epic of the Anglo-Saxon people. Not so much because it glorifies them, but because it captures their spirit. It presents our ancestors’ ideals and goals, manners and customs, through the story of a great national hero. Beowulf himself was not an Anglo-Saxon. He was a Geat-Dane, but he belonged to the family of nations that made up the Teutonic people. He lived in a heroic age, when wandering singers sang of the great deeds of outstanding men. The definitive epic of the English people has yet to be written. To some extent, our Anglo-Norman ancestors adopted Arthur as a king who represented the English people, though he was British. That is, he was King of the Celtic British people. Our Saxon ancestors later drove those people west into Cornwall, Wales, and Strathclyde. In Tennyson’s poetry, Arthur has become the epic King of the English. The writer has always found it puzzling that no skilled poet among us has taken up our own Saxon hero, King Alfred. People sometimes say there is nothing new under the sun and nothing left for modern poets to sing about. They also say that the scope for creating new music is rapidly disappearing. Certainly, the claim that nothing remains to be created is not true of poetry. Both Alfred and Arthur await a sympathetic voice to tell the world of the timeless greatness of their personalities. Our Anglo-Norman ancestors idealized Arthur as a heroic king of the English nation, though he actually fought against the English. Just as they did so, the Saxon poet of Beowulf idealized this Geatish chieftain. In some way, the poet presented Beowulf as the ideal chieftain of the Teutonic people.

Beowulf is an Anglo-Saxon poem.—It consists of 3182 lines. It is written in the alliterative verse of our ancestors in the Anglo-Saxon tongue, which, though the mother-tongue of the English, is yet more difficult to read for the Englishman than Latin or Greek. One wonders whether any genuine Anglo-Saxon epic existed, and has been destroyed in the passing of the centuries. The curious feature about this poem is that it concerns a man who was not an Anglo-Saxon. Our poem is written in the West Saxon dialect. The original poem was probably in Northumbrian, and was translated into West Saxon during the period of literary efflorescence in the West Saxon Court. We do not know whether it was a translation or whether it was original, though the latter is, I believe, the prevailing opinion. Arnold has put forth what may be called the missionary theory of its origin. He believes that both the choice of subject and the grade of culture may be connected with the missionary efforts of the English Church of those days to extend Christianity in Friesland and further east. ‘It does not seem improbable that it was in the interest of the spread of Christianity that the composer of Beowulf—perhaps a missioner, perhaps a layman attached to the mission—was attracted to the Scandinavian lands; that he resided there long enough to become thoroughly steeped in the folk-lore and local traditions; that he found the grand figure of Beowulf the Geat predominant in them; and that, weaving into an organic whole those which he found suitable to his own purpose, he composed an epic which, on his return home, must soon have become known to all the lovers of English song.’¹ Dr. Sarrazin thought this unknown poet might have been the famous Cynewulf. Arnold, chiefly on stylistic grounds, differs from this opinion. This is Arnold’s opinion: ‘Sagas, either in the Danish dialect or that of the Geats—more probably the latter—were current in the Scandinavian countries in the seventh century. Among these sagas, that of Beowulf the Geat must have had a prominent place; others celebrated Hygelac his uncle, Hnaef the Viking, the wars of the Danes and the Heathobards, of the Danes and the Swedes. About the end of the century missionaries from England are known to have been busy in Friesland and Denmark, endeavouring to convert the natives to Christianity. Some one of these, whose mind had a turn for literature and dwelt with joy upon the traditions of the past, collected or learnt by heart a number of these sagas, and, taking that of Beowulf as a basis, and weaving some others into his work, composed an epic poem to which, although it contains the record of those adventures, the heroic scale of the figure who accomplishes them all imparts a real unifying epic interest.’ Whatever may be the truth as to its origin, there it lies in the British Museum in its unique MS. as a testimony to all ages of the genius of the Anglo-Saxon race.

Beowulf is an Anglo-Saxon poem. It consists of 3182 lines. It uses our ancestors’ alliterative verse and is written in Anglo-Saxon, the language from which English developed. Yet Anglo-Saxon is harder for an English person to read than Latin or Greek. One wonders whether any truly Anglo-Saxon epic once existed but was lost over the centuries. The curious thing about this poem is that its hero was not an Anglo-Saxon. Our poem is written in the West Saxon dialect. The original poem was probably in Northumbrian. It was translated into West Saxon when literature flourished at the West Saxon Court. We do not know whether the poem was a translation or an original work. I believe most people favor the latter view. Arnold has proposed what might be called the missionary theory of the poem’s origin. He believes both its choice of subject and its level of culture may reflect the English Church’s missionary efforts. The Church was then seeking to spread Christianity in Friesland and farther east. ‘It does not seem unlikely that the composer of Beowulf was drawn to Scandinavian lands to help spread Christianity. The composer was perhaps a missionary, perhaps a layman attached to the mission. He may have stayed long enough to absorb the folklore and local traditions thoroughly. He may have found that the great figure of Beowulf the Geat dominated those traditions. He may then have woven the traditions that suited his purpose into a unified epic. On his return home, the poem must soon have become known to all lovers of English song.’¹ Dr. Sarrazin thought this unknown poet might have been the famous Cynewulf. Arnold disagrees, mainly on grounds of style. This is Arnold’s view: ‘Sagas circulated in Scandinavian countries during the seventh century, in either the Danish or the Geatish dialect, more probably the latter. Among these sagas, the story of Beowulf the Geat must have held a prominent place. Others celebrated his uncle Hygelac, Hnaef the Viking, and the wars between the Danes and the Heathobards. Still others celebrated the wars between the Danes and the Swedes. Near the century’s end, missionaries from England are known to have been active in Friesland and Denmark. They were trying to convert the local people to Christianity. One of these missionaries had a literary bent and took pleasure in traditions of the past. He collected or memorized a number of these sagas. Using the story of Beowulf as his foundation, he wove in some others and composed an epic poem. Although the poem records those adventures, the heroic stature of the figure who undertakes them all gives it genuine epic unity.’ Whatever the truth about its origin, the poem survives in its only manuscript in the British Museum. It stands as a testament for all ages to the genius of the Anglo-Saxon people.

Now it will be quite naturally asked, What do we learn from Beowulf of the genius and spirit of that race from which we are sprung?

Now a natural question arises. What does Beowulf teach us about the character and spirit of the people we descend from?

The one outstanding fact, as it appears to the writer, is the co-operative principle. And this principle stands in almost violent opposition to the ruling principle of the modern world, in which society is divided into a number of mutually opposite sections or classes, whose interests clash with fatal results to individual and corporate well-being. In this poem we see the whole community, from the King to the churl, bound by one common interest. King and chieftain and thane and churl freely intermingle and converse. They eat and drink and sleep under one common roof, or at least in one common enclosure. Tempora mutantur! but the idea of social interaction and mutual interdependence never found more vivid or real expression than in the pictures presented in Beowulf of Hart, the Great Hall of Hrothgar, and in the Court and township of Hygelac, King of the Geats. In the Hall of Hart Hrothgar and his Queen and his courtiers sit at the high table on the dais, and the lower orders at the long table down the hall. The spears and shields adorn the walls. After the evening meal, the singer, or scop, as he is called, to the accompaniment of the harp, tells forth the deeds of some ancient feud, such as that of Finn and the Danes or the Fight at Finnsburgh, or the feud of the Danes and the Heathobards, in which Freawaru, Hrothgar’s daughter, and Ingeld figure so tragically. Then the benches are removed, and the rude beds are spread out on the floor of the Great Hall and they seek ‘evening rest.’ The whole is a picture of fraternal and paternal government. If Grendel, the Fen-monster, carries away one of their number, then there is weeping and lamentation. The King and the Queen and the nobility and the commonalty are all concerned in the tragedy. The loss of one is the loss of all. When Aeschere is slain by Grendel’s mother Hrothgar thus bewails his loss: ‘Seek no more after joy; sorrow is renewed for the Danish folk. Aeschere is dead, he who was my wise counsellor and my adviser and my comrade in arms, when in time of war we defended ourselves; ... but now the hand lieth low which bestowed every kind of joy upon you.’ And in the end of the poem it is said of Beowulf that he was ‘most gentle to his folk.’ The King was king only ‘for his folk.’ The interest of his folk, their physical and moral well-being, was his chief solicitude.

To the writer, the most striking feature is the principle of cooperation. This principle stands in almost violent opposition to the principle that governs the modern world. Modern society is divided into opposing groups or classes. Their interests clash, with fatal consequences for the well-being of individuals and the community. In this poem, the whole community, from the King to the churl, is united by one common interest. King, chieftain, thane, and churl mix and talk freely. They eat, drink, and sleep under the same roof, or at least within the same enclosure. Times change! But social interaction and mutual dependence have never been expressed more vividly or realistically than in Beowulf. We see them in Hart, Hrothgar’s Great Hall, and in the Court and township of Hygelac, King of the Geats. In the Hall of Hart, Hrothgar, his Queen, and his courtiers sit at the high table on the raised platform. People of lower rank sit at the long table down the hall. Spears and shields decorate the walls. After the evening meal, the singer, called a scop, recounts the events of an ancient feud, accompanied by a harp. One example is the feud between Finn and the Danes, or the Fight at Finnsburgh. Another is the feud between the Danes and the Heathobards, in which Hrothgar’s daughter Freawaru and Ingeld play such tragic roles. Then the benches are removed, and simple beds are laid out on the floor of the Great Hall. Everyone seeks ‘evening rest.’ The whole scene shows a government based on brotherhood and fatherly care. If Grendel, the Fen-monster, carries away one of the community, everyone weeps and mourns. The King, the Queen, the nobles, and the common people all share in the tragedy. The loss of one is the loss of all. When Grendel’s mother kills Aeschere, Hrothgar mourns his loss in these words: ‘Look no more for joy. Sorrow has returned to the Danish people. Aeschere is dead. He was my wise counsellor, my adviser, and my comrade in arms when we defended ourselves in war. ... But now the hand that gave you every kind of joy lies lifeless.’ And at the end of the poem, Beowulf is described as ‘most gentle to his people.’ The King was king only ‘for his people.’ His people’s interests, their physical and moral well-being, were his chief concern.

2. But not only was this so within any one nation or tribe, but there was a sense of comradeship and mutual responsibility among those of various tribes and nations. When Beowulf the Geat hears in Gautland of the raids of Grendel upon Hart, he commands his folk to make ready a boat that he may fare across the sea to the help of Hrothgar, because ‘he was lacking in warriors.’ Beowulf’s whole mission in Hart was the discharge of a solemn obligation of help from the strong to the weak. He announces to Hrothgar that he is come ‘to cleanse Hart of ill,’ and this he feels he must do. ‘Woe is me if I preach not the gospel!’ cried St. Paul. ‘Woe is me if I help not the weak and cleanse not the demon-infested palace of my kinsman!’ cried Beowulf. ‘Weird goes as he willeth’; that is, Fate must be submitted to. And Fate hath willed that he should help the weak and ‘cleanse the ill.’

2. But this was not true only within a single nation or tribe. People from different tribes and nations also felt a sense of comradeship and responsibility for one another. In Gautland, Beowulf the Geat hears about Grendel’s raids on Hart. He orders his people to prepare a boat so he can cross the sea to help Hrothgar, because ‘he lacked warriors.’ Beowulf’s entire mission in Hart fulfilled a solemn duty of the strong to help the weak. He tells Hrothgar he has come ‘to rid Hart of evil,’ and he feels he must do so. ‘Woe to me if I do not preach the gospel!’ cried St. Paul. ‘Woe to me if I do not help the weak and rid my kinsman’s palace of demons!’ cried Beowulf. ‘Weird does as he wishes.’ In other words, people must submit to Fate. And Fate has willed that Beowulf should help the weak and ‘get rid of evil.’

3. Then there is the tremendous sense of loyalty on the part of the folk to their king or chieftain. The idea of the ‘Comitatus’ bound the folk to their leaders. Nothing more disgraceful could be conceived than the desertion of the leader. Terrible were the reproaches hurled at the trembling cowards who had hurried away into the woods, to save their own skins, whilst their King Beowulf wrestled with the dragon, the enemy of the people. ‘Yea, death is better for any earl than a life of reproach.’ Loyalty, a passionate loyalty to the King, was the greatest of virtues, and disloyalty and cowardice the greatest of vices. Society was an organic whole, bound together by the bands of loyalty and devotion to the common good.

3. Then there is the people's tremendous loyalty to their king or chief. The idea of the ‘Comitatus’ bound the people to their leaders. Nothing could be more disgraceful than abandoning their leader. Harsh condemnation fell on the trembling cowards who had fled into the woods to save their own lives. Meanwhile, their King Beowulf fought the dragon, the people's enemy. ‘Yes, death is better for any earl than a life of shame.’ Loyalty, passionate loyalty to the King, was the greatest virtue. Disloyalty and cowardice were the greatest vices. Society was a unified whole, held together by loyalty and devotion to the common good.

4. There is, too, the fatalistic note heard all through the poem. Beowulf feels himself hard pressed by Fate. The Anglo-Saxon called Fate by the name ‘Weird,’ which has survived in modern English in the sense of something strange and mysterious. Weird was the God, or Goddess of Fate. Again and again in the poem we hear the solemn, minor, dirge-like refrain, ‘Weird hath willed it’; ‘Goeth Weird as she willeth’ (chapter VI. p. 44). There is this perpetual overshadowing and almost crushing sense of some inscrutable and irresistible power that wieldeth all things and disposeth all things, which is, I believe, a pre-eminent characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon race, and accounts for the dare-devil courage of her sons upon the battle-field or on the high seas. We find it, too, in its morally less attractive form in the recrudescent pessimism of modern literature. Thomas Hardy is the lineal descendant in literature of the author of Beowulf when he says: ‘Thus the President of the Immortals had finished his sport with poor Tess.’²

4. A sense of fate also runs through the whole poem. Beowulf feels hard pressed by Fate. The Anglo-Saxons called Fate ‘Weird,’ a word that survives in modern English to mean something strange and mysterious. Weird was the God or Goddess of Fate. Again and again, the poem repeats a solemn refrain, mournful and like a funeral song: ‘Weird has willed it’. ‘Weird goes as she wills’ (chapter VI. p. 44). An overwhelming, almost crushing sense of a mysterious, irresistible power constantly hangs over the poem. This power controls all things and determines all things. I believe this sense of fate is a defining characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon people. It explains the reckless courage of their sons on the battlefield or the high seas. We also find this sense of fate, in a morally less appealing form, in modern literature’s recurring pessimism. In literature, Thomas Hardy is a direct descendant of the author of Beowulf when he says: ‘Thus the President of the Immortals had finished his sport with poor Tess.’²

5. And closely allied to this sense of Destiny is the sombre view of life that is characteristic of the Teutonic peoples. There is none of that passionate joy in beauty and in love that we find in the Celtic literature. Life is a serious thing in Beowulf and with us of the Anglo-Saxon race. The scenery of Beowulf is massive and threatening and mist-encircled. Angry seas are boiling and surging and breaking at the foot of lofty and precipitous cliffs. Above the edge of the cliffs stretch mysterious and gloomy moorlands, and treacherous bogs and dense forests inhabited by malignant and powerful spirits, the foes of humanity. In a land like this there is no time for love-making. Eating, drinking, sleeping, fighting there make up the business of life. It is to the Celtic inflow that we owe the addition of love in our modern literature. The composer of Beowulf could not have conceived the Arthur Saga or the Tristram love-legend. These things belong to a later age, when Celtic and Teutonic elements were fused in the Anglo-Norman race. But we still find in our literature the sombre hues. And, after all, it is in the forest of sorrow and pain that we discover the most beautiful flowers and the subtlest perfumes.

5. Closely linked to this sense of Destiny is the dark view of life typical of the Teutonic peoples. There is none of the passionate delight in beauty and love that we find in Celtic literature. Life is a serious matter in Beowulf and for those of us of the Anglo-Saxon race. The landscape of Beowulf is vast, threatening, and shrouded in mist. Angry seas boil, surge, and break at the foot of high, steep cliffs. Beyond the cliff edges lie mysterious, gloomy moorlands, treacherous bogs, and dense forests. Evil, powerful spirits inhabit these places and are enemies of humanity. In a land like this, there is no time for courtship. Eating, drinking, sleeping, and fighting make up the business of life there. We owe the addition of love to our modern literature to Celtic influence. The composer of Beowulf could not have imagined the Arthur Saga or the Tristram love-legend. These stories belong to a later age, when Celtic and Teutonic elements blended in the Anglo-Norman race. But we still find dark tones in our literature. And, after all, in the forest of sorrow and pain we discover the most beautiful flowers and the most delicate fragrances.

I desire to express my indebtedness to A. J. Wyatt and William Morris for their translations; to A. J. Wyatt for his edition of the poem in the original; to Thomas Arnold for his terse and most informing work on Beowulf; to the authors of articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and in Chambers’s Encyclopaedia and The Cambridge History of English Literature.

I am grateful to A. J. Wyatt and William Morris for their translations. I also thank A. J. Wyatt for his edition of the poem in its original language. I thank Thomas Arnold for his concise and highly informative work on Beowulf. I also thank the authors of articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chambers’s Encyclopaedia, and The Cambridge History of English Literature.

Ernest J. B. Kirtlan.

Ernest J. B. Kirtlan.