Simple Ideas from Both Sensation and Reflection

1. Ideas of Pleasure and Pain.

1. Ideas of Pleasure and Pain.

There be other simple ideas which convey themselves into the mind by all the ways of sensation and reflection, viz.

Other simple ideas enter the mind through all forms of sensation and reflection, namely:

2. Delight or uneasiness, one or other of them, join themselves to almost all our ideas both of sensation and reflection: and there is scarce any affection of our senses from without, any retired thought of our mind within, which is not able to produce in us pleasure or pain. By pleasure and pain, I would be understood to signify, whatsoever delights or molests us; whether it arises from the thoughts of our minds, or anything operating on our bodies. For, whether we call it; satisfaction, delight, pleasure, happiness, &c., on the one side, or uneasiness, trouble, pain, torment, anguish, misery, &c., the other, they are still but different degrees of the same thing, and belong to the ideas of pleasure and pain, delight or uneasiness; which are the names I shall most commonly use for those two sorts of ideas.

2. Pleasure or discomfort accompanies almost all our ideas, whether they come from our senses or from reflection. Hardly any outward sensation or private thought is incapable of producing pleasure or pain in us. By pleasure and pain, I mean anything that delights or troubles us. These feelings may arise from our thoughts or from something acting on our bodies. On one side, we may speak of satisfaction, delight, pleasure, happiness, and so on. On the other, we may speak of discomfort, trouble, pain, torment, anguish, misery, and so on. But these are only different degrees of pleasure or pain, and belong to those two kinds of ideas. I will most often call these two kinds of ideas pleasure and pain, or delight and discomfort.

3. As motives of our actions.

3. As reasons for our actions.

The infinite wise Author of our being, having given us the power over several parts of our bodies, to move or keep them at rest as we think fit; and also, by the motion of them, to move ourselves and other contiguous bodies, in which consist all the actions of our body: having also given a power to our minds, in several instances, to choose, amongst its ideas, which it will think on, and to pursue the inquiry of this or that subject with consideration and attention, to excite us to these actions of thinking and motion that we are capable of,—has been pleased to join to several thoughts, and several sensations a perception of delight. If this were wholly separated from all our outward sensations, and inward thoughts, we should have no reason to prefer one thought or action to another; negligence to attention, or motion to rest. And so we should neither stir our bodies, nor employ our minds, but let our thoughts (if I may so call it) run adrift, without any direction or design, and suffer the ideas of our minds, like unregarded shadows, to make their appearances there, as it happened, without attending to them. In which state man, however furnished with the faculties of understanding and will, would be a very idle, inactive creature, and pass his time only in a lazy, lethargic dream. It has therefore pleased our wise Creator to annex to several objects, and the ideas which we receive from them, as also to several of our thoughts, a concomitant pleasure, and that in several objects, to several degrees, that those faculties which he had endowed us with might not remain wholly idle and unemployed by us.

The infinitely wise Author of our being has given us control over several parts of our bodies. We can move those parts or keep them still as we choose. By moving those parts, we can also move ourselves and other bodies touching us. These movements make up all our bodily actions. He has also given our minds, in several cases, the power to choose which ideas to think about. We can pursue an inquiry into one subject or another with care and attention. To encourage these acts of thought and movement, he has attached a sense of pleasure to various thoughts and sensations. If pleasure were entirely absent from all our outward sensations and inward thoughts, we would have no reason for choosing. We would have no reason to prefer one thought or action to another, inattention to attention, or movement to rest. So we would neither move our bodies nor use our minds. Instead, we would let our thoughts drift, if I may put it that way, without direction or purpose. We would let ideas appear in our minds by chance, like unnoticed shadows, without paying attention to them. In this state, a person would be very idle and inactive, despite having the powers of understanding and will. Such a person would spend life in nothing more than a lazy, sluggish dream. Our wise Creator has therefore attached pleasure to various objects, to the ideas we receive from them, and to various thoughts. Different objects bring different degrees of pleasure. His purpose is to keep the powers he has given us from remaining entirely idle and unused.

4. An end and use of pain.

4. A purpose and use of pain.

Pain has the same efficacy and use to set us on work that pleasure has, we being as ready to employ our faculties to avoid that, as to pursue this: only this is worth our consideration, that pain is often produced by the same objects and ideas that produce pleasure in us. This their near conjunction, which makes us often feel pain in the sensations where we expected pleasure, gives us new occasion of admiring the wisdom and goodness of our Maker, who, designing the preservation of our being, has annexed pain to the application of many things to our bodies, to warn us of the harm that they will do, and as advices to withdraw from them. But he, not designing our preservation barely, but the preservation of every part and organ in its perfection, hath in many cases annexed pain to those very ideas which delight us. Thus heat, that is very agreeable to us in one degree, by a little greater increase of it proves no ordinary torment: and the most pleasant of all sensible objects, light itself, if there be too much of it, if increased beyond a due proportion to our eyes, causes a very painful sensation. Which is wisely and favourably so ordered by nature, that when any object does, by the vehemency of its operation, disorder the instruments of sensation, whose structures cannot but be very nice and delicate, we might, by the pain, be warned to withdraw, before the organ be quite put out of order, and so be unfitted for its proper function for the future. The consideration of those objects that produce it may well persuade us, that this is the end or use of pain. For, though great light be insufferable to our eyes, yet the highest degree of darkness does not at all disease them: because that, causing no disorderly motion in it, leaves that curious organ unharmed in its natural state. But yet excess of cold as well as heat pains us: because it is equally destructive to that temper which is necessary to the preservation of life, and the exercise of the several functions of the body, and which consists in a moderate degree of warmth; or, if you please, a motion of the insensible parts of our bodies, confined within certain bounds.

Pain moves us to act just as effectively as pleasure does, and serves the same purpose. We are as ready to use our abilities to avoid pain as to pursue pleasure. But one point deserves our attention: the same objects and ideas often produce both pain and pleasure in us. Because pain and pleasure are so closely linked, we often feel pain where we expected pleasure. This gives us another reason to admire the wisdom and goodness of our Maker. He intends to preserve our lives, so he has made many things painful when they touch our bodies. The pain warns us of the harm those things will do and urges us to draw away. But his purpose is not merely to keep us alive. He also intends to preserve every part and organ in perfect condition. So, in many cases, he has attached pain to the very ideas that delight us. For example, heat feels very pleasant at one level, but a slight increase makes the heat intensely painful. Light itself, the most pleasant of all things we sense, causes great pain if too much reaches our eyes. Nature has wisely and kindly arranged matters this way. An object may act so intensely that it disrupts our sense organs, whose structures are necessarily very fine and delicate. Pain then warns us to draw away before the organ is completely damaged and becomes unable to function properly afterward. Considering the objects that cause pain may well convince us that warning us is pain's purpose or use. For although intense light is unbearable to our eyes, even complete darkness causes them no distress. Darkness causes no disruptive movement in the eye, leaving that finely structured organ unharmed in its natural state. Yet excessive cold, like excessive heat, causes us pain. Both are equally destructive to the condition needed to preserve life and allow the body's various functions to work. That condition consists of a moderate degree of warmth. Or, if you prefer, it consists of movement within certain limits among the parts of our bodies too small to sense.

5. Another end.

5. Another purpose.

Beyond all this, we may find another reason why God hath scattered up and down several degrees of pleasure and pain, in all the things that environ and affect us; and blended them together in almost all that our thoughts and senses have to do with;—that we, finding imperfection, dissatisfaction, and want of complete happiness, in all the enjoyments which the creatures can afford us, might be led to seek it in the enjoyment of Him with whom there is fullness of joy, and at whose right hand are pleasures for evermore.

Beyond all this, we may find another reason why God has spread different degrees of pleasure and pain around us. He has placed them in all the things that surround and affect us. He has also mixed them together in almost everything our thoughts and senses encounter. His purpose may be to lead us to find imperfection, dissatisfaction, and incomplete happiness in all that created things offer. Through this, we might be led to seek complete happiness in the enjoyment of God. With him there is fullness of joy, and at his right hand are pleasures forever.

6. Goodness of God in annexing pleasure and pain to our other ideas.

6. God's goodness in linking pleasure and pain to our other ideas.

Though what I have here said may not, perhaps, make the ideas of pleasure and pain clearer to us than our own experience does, which is the only way that we are capable of having them; yet the consideration of the reason why they are annexed to so many other ideas, serving to give us due sentiments of the wisdom and goodness of the Sovereign Disposer of all things, may not be unsuitable to the main end of these inquiries: the knowledge and veneration of him being the chief end of all our thoughts, and the proper business of all understandings.

Perhaps what I have said here makes the ideas of pleasure and pain no clearer than our own experience does. Experience is the only way we can have these ideas. Yet we may consider why pleasure and pain are linked to so many other ideas. Doing so helps us properly appreciate the wisdom and goodness of the supreme ruler of all things. This consideration may therefore fit the main purpose of these inquiries. For knowing and honoring him is the chief aim of all our thoughts and the proper work of every mind.

7. Ideas of Existence and Unity.

7. Ideas of Existence and Oneness.

EXISTENCE and UNITY are two other ideas that are suggested to the understanding by every object without, and every idea within. When ideas are in our minds, we consider them as being actually there, as well as we consider things to be actually without us;—which is, that they exist, or have existence. And whatever we can consider as one thing, whether a real being or idea, suggests to the understanding the idea of unity.

EXISTENCE and UNITY are two other ideas suggested to the mind by every external object and every idea within it. When ideas are in our minds, we regard them as actually present, just as we regard external things as present. In other words, both ideas and external things exist, or have existence. And whatever we can regard as one thing, whether a real being or an idea, suggests the idea of unity.

8. Idea of Power.

8. The Idea of Power.

POWER also is another of those simple ideas which we receive from sensation and reflection. For, observing in ourselves that we do and can think, and that we can at pleasure move several parts of our bodies which were at rest; the effects, also, that natural bodies are able to produce in one another, occurring every moment to our senses,—we both these ways get the idea of power.

POWER is another simple idea we receive through sensation and reflection. We observe that we do think and are able to think. We also observe that we can move various parts of our bodies at will after they have been at rest. Our senses also constantly reveal the effects that physical objects can produce in one another. Through both kinds of observation, we gain the idea of power.

9. Idea of Succession.

9. The Idea of One Thing Following Another.

Besides these there is another idea, which, though suggested by our senses, yet is more constantly offered to us by what passes in our minds; and that is the idea of SUCCESSION. For if we look immediately into ourselves, and reflect on what is observable there, we shall find our ideas always, whilst we are awake, or have any thought, passing in train, one going and another coming, without intermission.

Besides these ideas, there is another: the idea of SUCCESSION. Although our senses suggest this idea, what happens in our minds presents it to us more constantly. For if we look directly into ourselves and reflect on what we observe, we find our ideas continually following one another. As long as we are awake or have any thought, one idea goes and another comes, without interruption.

10. Simple Ideas the materials of all our Knowledge.

10. Simple ideas are the building blocks of all our knowledge.

These, if they are not all, are at least (as I think) the most considerable of those simple ideas which the mind has, out of which is made all its other knowledge; all which it receives only by the two forementioned ways of sensation and reflection.

These, if not all, are at least what I consider the most important simple ideas the mind has. From these simple ideas, the mind builds all its other knowledge. The mind receives all these ideas only through the two ways mentioned earlier: sensation and reflection.

Nor let any one think these too narrow bounds for the capacious mind of man to expatiate in, which takes its flight further than the stars, and cannot be confined by the limits of the world; that extends its thoughts often even beyond the utmost expansion of Matter, and makes excursions into that incomprehensible Inane. I grant all this, but desire any one to assign any SIMPLE IDEA which is not received from one of those inlets before mentioned, or any COMPLEX IDEA not made out of those simple ones. Nor will it be so strange to think these few simple ideas sufficient to employ the quickest thought, or largest capacity; and to furnish the materials of all that various knowledge, and more various fancies and opinions of all mankind, if we consider how many words may be made out of the various composition of twenty-four letters; or if, going one step further, we will but reflect on the variety of combinations that may be made with barely one of the above-mentioned ideas, viz. number, whose stock is inexhaustible and truly infinite: and what a large and immense field doth extension alone afford the mathematicians?

No one should think these boundaries leave too little room for the vast human mind to roam. The mind flies beyond the stars and cannot be confined within the limits of the world. Its thoughts often reach beyond even the farthest extent of Matter and venture into that incomprehensible void. I grant all this. But I ask anyone to name any SIMPLE IDEA not received through one of the sources mentioned earlier. Or name any COMPLEX IDEA not made from those simple ideas. Nor should these few simple ideas seem insufficient to occupy the quickest mind or the greatest intellect. They can supply the materials for all humanity’s varied knowledge and still more varied imaginings and opinions. This will seem less strange if we consider how many words can be formed by combining twenty-four letters. Or we can go a step further and consider the possible combinations of just one idea mentioned above: number. Its possibilities are inexhaustible and truly infinite. And what a vast, immense field extension alone offers mathematicians!